ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Psychiatry
Sec. Addictive Disorders
Who Are We Reaching? Identifying Subgroups Among Individuals Seeking Help for Opioid Use Disorder
Carla Faßbender 1,2,3
Carlotta Riemerschmid 1,4
Monika Murawski 1,5
Ursula Berger 2,3
Eva Hoch 1,6,4
Larissa Schwarzkopf 7,2,3
1. IFT Institut für Therapieforschung, Centre for Mental Health and Addiction Research, Munich, Germany
2. Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry, and Epidemiology (IBE), Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
3. Pettenkofer School of Public Health, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
4. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Clinic of the Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
5. Bavarian Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians, Munich, Germany
6. Division of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Charlotte-Fresenius-University, Munich, Germany
7. IFT Institut für Therapieforschung, Munich, Germany
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Abstract
Abstract Introduction Opioid use disorder (OUD) represents a major challenge in addiction care, yet empirical insights into the sociodemographic, clinical, and care-related profiles of help-seekers remain limited. Understanding these profiles is essential for developing targeted care strategies. This study therefore aims to identify and describe latent classes of help-seekers with OUD and outline their specific needs. Methods Latent Class Analysis was applied to routinely collected person-level data from the 2023 Berlin Addiction Care Statistical Service to identify latent classes of outpatient help-seekers with OUD. Comorbid substance use disorders (SUDs) and injection drug use served as indicators. Classes were compared across sociodemographic, clinical, and care-related variables using Bonferroni-adjusted χ²-tests. Results Among 2,833 help-seekers, three latent classes were identified: Individuals Primarily Using Opioids (n = 1,381), Individuals with Multiple SUDs (n = 709), and Individuals Who Inject Drugs (n = 743). Individuals Primarily Using Opioids did not exhibit clearly distinctive patterns of service utilization and disproportionately reported methadone or other opioids as their main substances of use. Individuals with Multiple SUDs were characterized by high social stability (e.g., partnerships, independent living) and a high enrolment in opioid agonist treatment (OAT). Individuals Who Inject Drugs were marked by heightened vulnerability, including precarious housing and elevated rates of HIV and hepatitis C and primarily accessed low-threshold services. Discussion and Conclusion The results highlight the heterogeneity of help-seekers with OUD and emphasize the need for targeted, class-specific care strategies. Individuals Primarily Using Opioids warrant further investigation, as this class may still comprise heterogeneous subgroups with diverse care needs. Individuals with Multiple SUDs may benefit from more flexible OAT frameworks that accommodate work and family responsibilities. For Individuals Who Inject Drugs, integrated health and social services, combined with expanded harm reduction efforts (e.g., syringe exchange, testing opportunities for infectious diseases), may help reduce access barriers and effectively address their complex needs.
Summary
Keywords
Comorbid substance use disorder, Injection drug use, latent class analysis, Opioid use disorder, Outpatient Addiction Care Facilities
Received
24 November 2025
Accepted
19 February 2026
Copyright
© 2026 Faßbender, Riemerschmid, Murawski, Berger, Hoch and Schwarzkopf. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Larissa Schwarzkopf
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