Evaluation of national policies governing food systems in Malawi prisons and their impact on prisoner nutrition and health

Abstract

Food systems policies play a crucial role in fostering sustainable food and nutrition security within the prison system. This study examines the food systems policies implemented in Malawi’s prisons and their impact on the health and nutritional status of prisoners. It identifies significant gaps and disparities in policy coverage, emphasizing the pivotal role of dietary regulations and food quality in influencing the overall wellbeing of prisoners. A comprehensive desk review, key informant interviews, and policy analysis were conducted to evaluate how national policies align with and impact prisoners’ health. The review highlights areas that require improvement to enhance health outcomes, proposing policy reforms that include enhanced nutritional guidelines, increased funding, and regular monitoring. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for a comprehensive food systems approach in prisons.

1 Introduction

The right to food is a fundamental human right (United Nations Human Rights, 1996). This right applies to every person, whether incarcerated in prisons or not (Civil Rights Division, 2024). The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (commonly referred to as the Mandela Rules) emphasize the provision of adequate food and nutrition as a fundamental human right (UNODC, 2015). Within the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, the SADC Food Nutrition Security Framework (SADC, 2014), addresses specific nutritional needs for prisoners across the SADC region. This framework advocates for the provision of balanced diets that meet the dietary requirements of prisoners, thereby enhancing their overall health and rehabilitation prospects (African Union Development Agency, 2015).

Studies indicate that food provision in many African prisons is often insufficient, both in quality and quantity (Baffour et al., 2024). In some instances, prisoners do not receive enough food to meet their basic nutritional requirements, which can result in malnutrition and related health problems (Mommaerts et al., 2022). The African Prisons Food Systems Project highlighted the challenges faced by prisoners in accessing nutritious meals within these facilities (Wondimu et al., 2021). Their findings showed that many prisons struggle to provide balanced and adequate food to prisoners due to limited funding and resource constraints. Specifically, prisons in Malawi face significant challenges such as food insecurity and malnutrition (Kachidowo et al., 2020). This occurs despite the existence of established frameworks and policies designed to promote prisoner welfare.

In Malawi, the food systems within prisons are shaped by a complex interplay of national and international policies (Moloko et al., 2017). The Mandela Rules, the SADC framework, and the Malawi Prisons Act are among the key components of this interplay. These policies aim to ensure the humane treatment of prisoners, promoting nutritional security and fostering sustainable practices (Government of Malawi, 2021a).

The Malawi Prisons Act and Standing Orders delineate the responsibilities and standards for food provision within prisons. It is the key document guiding the establishment of guidelines that govern the preparation, serving, and quality of food provided to prisoners. These regulations are essential for maintaining health and hygiene standards in prison kitchens and dining facilities (Government of Malawi, 2018). However, the Act itself—established in 1958—is considered outdated and does not adequately address the contemporary challenges of food security and nutrition within the prison system (Korir, 2017). Consequently, there is a pressing need to reform the Act to align with modern food systems and nutritional guidelines that cover six food groups, whilst the Act covers only three groups (Malawi Government, 1958; Ambikapathi et al., 2022).

The Malawi National Multi-Sector Nutrition Policy plays a crucial role in coordinating efforts to improve nutrition across various sectors, including prison systems. This policy aims at addressing malnutrition and promoting food security, ensuring that prisoners receive adequate nutrition as part of their rehabilitation process (Government of Malawi, 2018). The Malawi National Environmental Policy emphasizes sustainable practices in food production and consumption, encouraging prisons to adopt environmentally friendly approaches. This includes waste management and local food sourcing to enhance food security while minimizing environmental impact (Government of Malawi, 2004). The Malawi National Livestock Development Policy supports integrating livestock management into prison food systems, promoting animal protein production to improve meal quality. It encourages establishing prison farms to provide fresh produce and livestock, enhancing self-sufficiency and reducing reliance on external food sources (Government of Malawi, 2021b).

There are several international agencies that play a role in governing food systems in Prisons, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Food Programmes (WFP), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). (Zutphen, 2018). FAO focuses on enhancing nutrition, agricultural productivity, and rural livelihood. It collaborates with governments and partners to develop effective policies and programs aimed at eradicating hunger, ensuring food security, and fostering sustainable agriculture for millions worldwide. It also works alongside governments and partners to empower marginalized communities, ultimately striving to eliminate rural poverty (FAO, 2015). In contrast, the WHO, a specialized agency of the United Nations, is dedicated to addressing global health challenges, such as disease prevention, health promotion, and emergency response. Its key functions involve directing and coordinating international health initiatives, establishing standards, and advocating for disease prevention (WHO, 2025).

FAO and WHO are important references for prison food systems, as they provide guidelines and recommendations to ensure the nutritional quality and safety of food served in prisons. These organizations have expertise in public health, nutrition, and food safety, which are crucial aspects to consider when planning and implementing food programs in prison facilities. By following the guidelines set forth by WHO and FAO, prison management can ensure that prisoners receive adequate and balanced meals that meet their dietary needs for good health (FAO, 2021).

There are a number of frameworks or approaches that apply to studies on food systems in prisons, including the Food Systems Framework, Human Rights-Based Approach, Public Health Framework, and Policy Analysis Frameworks (Shannon, 2015). The Food Systems Framework considers the entire food system, from production to consumption, and its impact on health, the environment, and the economy. It helps to assess how policies affect food availability, quality, and nutritional outcomes in Malawi prisons. The Human Rights-Based Approach focuses on ensuring that policies comply with international human rights standards, including the right to adequate food and health. It is used to evaluate whether prisoners’ nutritional needs are being met and if their health rights are protected.

Public Health Framework examines the health outcomes of policies, including the prevalence of chronic diseases and nutritional deficiencies among prisoners. It helped to identify the health impacts of current food policies and suggest improvements. Policy Analysis Framework approach involves a systematic evaluation of policy design, implementation, consumption, and impacts on health, environment, and economy (Shannon, 2015).

This study aimed to collate, review, and evaluate national policies that inform food and nutrition security in Malawi prisons, as they relate to food. The study aimed to identify key areas for improvement to enhance health outcomes for the incarcerated. The study employed the Policy Analysis Framework to identify the policies and evaluate policy design and implementation.

2 Methods

2.1 Identification of national policies governing food systems in Malawi

2.1.1 Desk review

A desk review was conducted to identify government policies related to food systems in Malawi. This process involved determining which ministries and departments are responsible for overseeing food and nutrition security in Malawi. Official government websites focusing on agriculture, food security, and nutrition were thoroughly examined for policy documents, reports, and publications. Additionally, pertinent government ministries and departments, including the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development; the Ministry of Industry, Trade, and Tourism; the Ministry of Health; and the Ministry of Homeland Security, were contacted. Meetings were conducted with top officials at each ministry to inquire about specific policies concerning food systems and health in Malawi.

Secondary data were extracted from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) websites to collate the recommended dietary patterns and their nutrient density against the Malawi prison’s diet in grams (g). Stakeholder consultations with national research institutes in Malawi, such as Chitedze and Bvumbwe research centers, to inquire about their assessments and support for food systems policies in Malawi, including within prison settings.

2.1.2 Key informant interviews

A total of 16 (n = 16) key informant interviews were conducted with prison officials, which included the commissioner general (n = 1), commissioners (n = 4), officers in-charge from maximum prisons (n = 4) and staff from various departments such as nutrition (n = 3), agriculture (n = 2), procurement (n = 1), research and planning (n = 1). The key informants were purposively selected based on their roles, which were directly aligned with the objectives of this study. Summaries of key informants in terms of their roles, numbers, and gender distribution are presented in Table 1.

One-on-one interviews were conducted to (1) establish whether there have been any policy reviews, (2) identify challenges that prisoners face when implementing the existing policies, and (3) identify any key areas of improvement. Transcripts from the interviews were thematically analyzed.

2.2 Alignment of national food systems policies in Malawi with the prisons act on food security, nutrition, and food groups

A thorough evaluation of the Malawi Prisons Act was conducted by examining its provisions to understand the specific requirements and regulations related to food and nutrition security for prisoners in Malawi. All identified relevant national policies related to food systems, agriculture, nutrition, and health in Malawi were reviewed to assess their alignment with the provisions of the Prisons Act and to identify gaps or opportunities for improving food security and nutrition within the prison system.

Comparative Policy analysis was conducted, where the provisions of the Prisons Act were compared with the identified national policies governing food systems in Malawi. The focus was on how well these policies align with the requirements outlined in the Prisons Act regarding food and nutrition security in prison. A scoring system was used to assign categorical scores in rating the alignment between identified national food system policies and the Prisons Act. Each policy was scored on a scale of 1–10, where 1 indicated poor alignment and 10 indicated excellent alignment. The policies were assessed on how well their content aligned with the Prisons Act in three main areas: (1) access to nutritious food, (2) compliance and provision for the food production, and (3) environmental management in food production and processing—to assess various degrees of alignment and coverage across different policy objectives and provisions.

To ensure the scoring was not subjective or based on a single reviewer’s opinion, the scoring was conducted independently by three team members with expertise in policy analysis, nutrition, and environmental management. After independent scoring, the team convened to discuss any discrepancies in scores. Through a consensus-building process, where differences were discussed openly and evidence from the policy documents was reviewed, the team agreed on a final score for each policy. This approach helped to minimize individual bias and improve the reliability of the scoring.

All central prison facilities were visited to observe firsthand the implementation of food systems policies and assess whether they align with the requirements of the Prisons Act. Purposefully, male (maximum) and female prisons were chosen because they hold all classes of prisoners, including medium and maximum sentenced prisoners, convicted and remanded persons, and female prisoners. Stage leader prisoners (n = 12) at each facility visited were interviewed, and a detailed report highlighting the alignment or gaps between national policies governing food systems and the provisions of the Prisons Act in Malawi was prepared. Stage leader prisoners are prisoners who exhibit consistent good behavior for a considerable period and prove themselves to be reliable and trustworthy. They are selected by prison authorities and tasked with overseeing other prisoners in various roles, including coordinating between prisoners and staff.

2.3 Application of national food systems policies in Malawi prisons and their impact on prisoners’ health

To evaluate the application of national food systems policies in the prison system and their impact, a comprehensive approach was undertaken in this study. Initially, a thorough assessment of the existing national food systems policies in Malawi and their relevance was conducted. This involved identifying any gaps or areas of improvement in the implementation of these policies within prison systems.

Subsequently, consultative meetings were organized with relevant stakeholders, including nutrition experts and prison officials, such as commissioners. The aim was to collaboratively review the policies and tailor strategies for promoting healthy eating habits among prisoners and identify policies that ensure an adequate provision of nutritious food rations to prisoners.

Reports and literature reviews were conducted to evaluate the impact of implemented interventions on prisoners’ health outcomes. Recommendations were assessed to ensure their effectiveness and to inform future policy decisions in this area.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 National policies governing food systems in Malawi

A total of nine national policies were found to be directly relevant to food systems in Malawi prisons. These policies are spread across 15 departments in six ministries. They cover direct aspects of food systems (i.e., livestock, land resources, irrigation, food, health, and environment) as well as others that cover some more indirect aspects (i.e., finance and trade). Table 2 presents the identified policies, their respective departments and ministries, and linkages to the Malawi Prisons Act of 1948.

The results of the desk review (Table 2) revealed significant gaps between the provisions of the Prisons Act and most of the national policies. This was expected, as the Prisons Act has not been updated to reflect recent policy developments. Even though not much has been highlighted on Livestock Policy, it has been established that the policy complements the Prisons Act and Mandela Rules in the provision of a reliable protein supply from animal sources to Prisoners. The policy aims to achieve the transformation of the livestock sector to effectively contribute to agricultural outputs for better household livelihoods, economic empowerment, and export trade within the context of sustainable environmental and natural resource management (Malawi Government, 2004). This helps to improve nutrition security in prisons by emphasizing the importance of transforming the livestock sector to enhance agricultural outputs. By focusing on economic empowerment, better household livelihoods, and export trade, the policy encourages sustainable environmental and natural resource management. This holistic approach leads to the availability of nutritious food options within prisons, promoting better nutrition security for prisoners in Malawi. The Livestock Development Policy highlights that:

“The policy will ensure that production of breeding stock and its availability to farmers is enhanced by promoting the establishment of local breeding centers by public and private subsector actors and also by prioritizing dairy cattle, beef cattle, chicken, pig, goat, and beekeeping value chain in livestock programmes”

This policy provision has enabled Malawi prisons to raise animals, such as cattle and goats, at the Mikuyu 1 prison farm in the eastern region of Malawi. During consultation interviews, the officer in-charge at Zomba Central prison explained that when the animals are slaughtered from farm prisons, the meat is shared among the prisoners for consumption.

This desk review has provided valuable insights into the evolution of food practices within the prison system, highlighted areas of improvement or challenges faced, and contributed to the development of evidence-based recommendations for enhancing food security and nutrition for prisoners (Smoyer et al., 2019). These shifts provided opportunities for Government policies on food systems in Malawi prisons to be influenced by external factors such as internal guidelines on human rights, nutrition standards, or prison reform (Matchaya and Guthiga, 2023).

The results also show that the Agriculture Land Resources Management Policy (ALRMP) is aligned with the Malawi Prisons Act in general—where it promotes responsible management of the environment to prevent degradation by means of environmental protection and sustainable development of natural resources, as well as conserving and enhancing biological diversity within Malawi prisons. This approach ensures sustainable practices that support the availability of nutritious food options and overall wellbeing of prisoners, thereby enhancing food and nutrition security within Malawi prison systems. Grace et al. (2015) highlighted how sustainable agriculture practices, such as agroecology and organic farming, can enhance environmental conservation and resource management. The findings demonstrated that these practices not only contribute to improved food security but also increase the availability of nutritious food options. By promoting sustainable agriculture, the study showed a positive impact on both environmental sustainability and nutrition security.

It has also been revealed that the National Agriculture Policy (NAP) prioritizes sustainable and diversified agricultural production, productivity enhancement, and improvement in food security. By emphasizing the promotion of nutritious foods through agricultural interventions and incorporating nutrition education into extension services, the NAP aligns with the objectives of the Malawi Prisons Act. This alignment aims to combat food insecurity and malnutrition within Malawi Prisons, ultimately working towards enhancing food security and improving the nutritional wellbeing of prisoners in Malawi. By implementing these strategies, the collaboration between NAP and the Prisons Act significantly contributes to enhancing food and nutrition security within prison settings. However, what other researchers have found on the ground within Malawi prisons is contrary to this.

This desk review has highlighted the importance of prison farms in Malawi prisons. It showed that practically all prisoners in Malawi’s prisons were food insecure. There was a higher perception of food insecurity in prisons without farms compared to those with farms. Conditions of severe food insecurity were experienced more in non-farmed prisons than in farmed prisons, and more prisoners in non-farmed prisons depended on food brought to them from their homes. Therefore, food insecurity was more prevalent in prisons without farms than in prisons with farms (Moloko, 2018).

National Irrigation Policy (NIP) is well anchored in the Prisons Act and the prisons rehabilitation and reintegration strategy of 2019. The policy also aims at enhancing self-food sufficiency, including in prison facilities, providing effective rehabilitation, reformation, and reintegration services, and effectively mainstreaming issues of gender, HIV and AIDS, and the environment in prisons’ activities. The national irrigation policy has stated:

“The policy will ensure the promotion of irrigation technologies and best practices by supporting the innovative development, adoption and dissemination of these technologies and practices”

This policy has enabled Malawi prisons to adopt government-enhanced irrigation technology, facilitating farming activities during the dry season, and thereby strengthening food security at a few farm prisons that practice farming, such as Mikuyu, Mpypyu, and Byanzi prisons. This is, therefore, in agreement with Research that has indicated that irrigation plays a crucial role in enhancing food and nutrition security in prisons. By ensuring a consistent water supply for agricultural activities, irrigation systems can increase crop yield and diversify food production within the prison facilities. This not only improves the nutritional quality of meals served to prisoners but also contributes to overall food self-sufficiency and resilience against external disruptions to the food supply. Additionally, irrigation policy helps to provide guidance to support the cultivation of a variety of fruits and vegetables, promoting a balanced and healthy diet for prisoners (Brown University—School of Public Health, 2023).

The national health policy sets broader guidelines for healthcare delivery, including those within prisons, while the Prisons Act outlines specific healthcare provisions for prisoners. Both aim to promote access to quality healthcare services, address health disparities, and uphold human rights, even in the prison setting. Health policy is a formal statement of intent on health, covering vision, goals, policy directions, and priorities (Malawi Government, 2020). The desk review has shown that the National Health Policy’s linkages with other overarching national policies and legislation have not directly touched the One Health sister policies and legislation, such as animals and environmental health policies, hence creating a gap in addressing the infectious diseases as far as the One Health concept is concerned (Malawi Government, 2020). Research has directly shown the importance of a direct link between animal health and environmental health as far as food and nutrition security is concerned. This is in line with what Grace et al. (2015) established in her study—that healthy animals are essential for providing safe and nutritious food products, as diseases in livestock can have detrimental effects on food quality and safety. Additionally, a healthy environment is vital for supporting the wellbeing of animals and the production of nutritious food. Environmental factors such as clean water, air quality, and sustainable land management directly impact the health of animals and the safety of food products derived from them.

Malawi National Multi-Sector Nutrition Policy provides guidelines and strategies that promote the consumption of all Malawian-recommended key food groups, which provide essential nutrients for optimal health and wellbeing of both the general and prison population. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2020–2025, published by the US Department of Health and Human Services and the US Department of Agriculture, emphasize the importance of consuming a variety of nutrient-dense foods from all food groups to meet essential nutrients and support overall health. The guidelines are applicable not only to the general populations but also to specific populations such as those in prisons (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2020).

The study has revealed that the National Trade Policy (NTP) influences import and export regulations, tariffs, and trade agreements that impact the availability and cost of food products in the market. Prisons rely on these policies to source food items for prisoners’ meals, considering factors such as pricing, quality standards, and supply chain logistics. Hence, it aligns with the Prisons Act and the Mandela Rules wherever it is applicable. This is very connected to what Agarwala (2022) said in his research that sustainable trade policies are emerging as a focal point. Governments are exploring ways to balance domestic food security with international trade commitments, ensuring fair market access for all while addressing environmental and social considerations.

Finally, Table 2 shows the National Environmental Policy linking with food guidelines in Malawi prisons and the Mandela Rules by ensuring sustainable and environmentally friendly practices in food production, procurement, and waste management within prison facilities. National Environmental Policy sets guidelines for reducing carbon footprint, promoting sustainable agriculture, and minimizing food waste, which can directly impact the food served in prisons. These findings agree with another study conducted in the USA’s prisons by Nadkarni (2010) where he showcases how initiatives such as composting to reduce food waste and promoting sustainable agriculture through prison gardens can significantly influence the quality and sustainability of food provided in Prison facilities. However, during the consultation interviews with one of the prison stage leaders at Mzuzu prison, when asked to explain how prison is aligning itself to the National Environmental Policy, he pointed out that:

“Wet firewood is collected daily from nearby bushes. This causes excessive smoke in the kitchen, delays cooking and mealtime, and contributes to deforestation and environmental degradation. Additionally, fetching firewood is challenging since the available woodlots are not owned by the prison”.

Therefore, there is a need to install biogas or solar pots to reduce energy costs and improve cooking capacity.

3.2 Alignment of national food systems policies in Malawi with the prisons act: a focus on food security, nutrition, and food groups

Results show that the prison policy only aligns well (~58.5%) with other national policies on the aspect of access to nutritious food. This indicates that it includes provisions covering all recommended food groups, food supply chain management, consideration for all classes of prisoners (male and female prisoners; medium- and maximum-security prisoners), as well as special provisions for pregnant and lactating women and children accompanying their mothers. Overall, when combining all national policies, the total score was 65, which translates to approximately 60% alignment with the Prisons Act. Table 3 provides the extent of the alignment between Malawi national food systems policies and the Prisons Act, based on rating scores.

However, it significantly lacks compliance with provisions for food production and distribution. Each policy was analyzed based on the availability of provisions related to land accessibility, farm mechanization, storage, transportation, food management, and access to farm inputs. The combined provisions from these policies showed varying degrees of alignment, totaling 29, which corresponds to approximately 26.1% (290 × 9/100). Additionally, the environmental management aspects related to food production and processing fall short in promoting sustainable agricultural practices, conserving natural resources, and addressing climate change, scoring 18.9% (210 × 9/100).

Therefore, the alignment assessment between national food system policies and the Prisons Act reveals varying degrees of alignment across different policy objectives and provisions. This study has found that access to nutritious food for prisoners scored slightly higher in alignment, indicating that neither set of guidelines fully prioritizes ensuring that individual prisoners have access to quality food. However, there is room for improvement in areas such as food procurement practices, dietary guidelines compliance, and provision for food production and distribution, where the alignment score was lower. This suggests that there may be discrepancies between the requirements outlined in national food system policies and the standards set forth in the Prisons Act regarding the sourcing and procurement, or production of food for prison facilities. While certain aspects of the national food system policies align well with the provisions of the Prisons Act, there are opportunities for further harmonization to enhance the food quality, quantity, and frequency of food consumption by prisoners.

Table 4 provides a summary of the desk review findings, highlighting key issues related to food and nutrition, as well as the specific food groups addressed in national policies governing Food Systems Policies in Malawi and the Prisons Act.

Results in Table 4 show more gaps in the Prisons Act compared to the provisions in national policies. This is because the Malawi Prisons Act is outdated, as it was enacted before the national recommended six food groups and requires a review, particularly on key issues related to food and nutrition security, as well as the specific food groups.

The Financial and Material Resources Policy, which indirectly promotes financial resources towards nutrition programs, indirectly covers recommended food groups. However, the policy plays a crucial role in improving food and nutrition security in Malawi prisons. This is in line with what Karls (2023) highlighted in his study that adequate funding allows for the procurement of high-quality and diverse food items, ensuring that prisoners receive balanced and nutritious meals. With sufficient financial resources, prisons can invest in modern kitchen equipment, storage facilities, and food safety measures, which are essential for maintaining food quality and hygiene standards. Additionally, Brunicardi (2018) also observed that access to material resources, such as agricultural tools and supplies, can support prison farms or gardens, enabling the production of fresh fruits and vegetables on-site.

The implementation of the national food systems policies covered in this study has significant implications within Malawi’s prison food system, including the establishment of nutritional standards for prisoners. Ensuring adequate nutrition means that Malawi prisons must guarantee that meals provided to prisoners meet basic essential nutritional requirements (NCCHC, 2023). This may necessitate reforms in food availability, accessibility, and utilization, encompassing procurement and food preparation practices to ensure that prisoners receive balanced diets that promote their health. Additionally, it promotes food and nutrition security by emphasizing the provision of sufficient food, which can potentially lead to improved food and nutrition security within prisons. This could involve forming partnerships with local farmers and suppliers to source fresh produce and other food items, adding to what the facility is producing, thereby enhancing the quality of meals served to prisoners. This is in line with what JAVED (2025) found in his study, that mutually beneficial partnerships with local farms and suppliers are one of the effective strategies for food availability and accessibility.

3.3 Dietary pattern and nutrient density in Malawi prisons

Figures 1, 2 illustrate the FAO- and WHO-recommended dietary patterns and nutrient density in comparison to the Malawi Prisons Diet, expressed in grams.

Figure 1

Figure 2

The results in Figure 1 show that there is a high provision of carbohydrates and salts in Malawi prisons policy compared to FAO and WHO provisions; carbohydrates are the predominant source of energy in Malawi Prisons compared to protein. This may suggest a diet rich in grains, which is typically high in carbohydrates. The higher provision of carbohydrates relative to protein could imply a lower intake of protein-rich foods such as meat, dairy, and legumes. This dietary composition may have implications for overall nutrient balance and could be indicative of malnutrition.

Figure 1 shows the global prisons policy food provision against the Malawi Prisons Act for Carbohydrates, Protein from plant and animal sources, vegetables, oils, and salt. To begin with Carbohydrates provisions [Maize (680 g, 400 g), Rice (454 g, 250 g), Cassava (680 g, 113 g), Millet meal (680 g, 50 g), and Sweet potatoes (284 g, 100 g)], it was provided in large quantity by the Prisons Act compared to mean quantity provided by FAO/WHO. This is happening due to the contextualization of Malawi’s Prisons Act, which is purposed to address protein energy malnutrition in Malawi’s prisons, while the FAO/WHO provision is a means of providing provisions to all nations. However, the difference in carbohydrates provided by the Malawi Prisons Act and FAO/WHO is too huge, almost half (680 g by the Malawi Prisons Act against 203.25 g on average by FAO/WHO). It was identified through the targeted consultation interviews with officers in-charge at Zomba Central Prison that, despite the food provision schedule outlined in the Malawi Prisons Act and the clear need, the facility was not adhering to that due to inadequate funding. Prisoners continue to be served maize porridge (nsima) accompanied by pigeon peas every day, by half of what has been outlined in the Malawi Prisons Act. This is in line with what was found by Malawi Inspectorate of Prisons and Irish Rule of Law International (2025), that Malawi prisons are in a food crisis and hunger due to overcrowding, underfunding, inadequate farming and scarcity, inflation, and skyrocketing prices.

The review of these policies has shown that plant-based protein sources (such as peas, beans, and ground nuts) were found to be recommended in large quantities of 177 g by FAO/WHO, while they were recommended in smaller quantities of 113 g by the Prisons Act. Increasing the consumption of plant-based proteins can have positive impacts on health and the environment. Plant-based proteins are healthier for cardiovascular health, rich in nutrients, and have a lower carbon footprint compared to animal-based proteins (Viroli, 2023).

Additionally, this study has revealed that protein from animal sources (such as meat) is recommended in smaller quantities by FAO/WHO compared to the provisions outlined in the Malawi Prisons Act. The discrepancy in recommended protein intake from animal sources between FAO/WHO and the Malawi Prisons Act may lead to potential health implications for prisoners following these guidelines. It could result in higher saturated fat and cholesterol consumption, which are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (Beal et al., 2023). However, in agriculture policy, it has been highlighted that:

“The policy will ensure that livestock production and productivity is strengthened as an important component for building resilient agri-food systems and improving the livelihoods of people in the current challenging environment”.

Vegetables are recommended in larger quantities (223 g) by FAO/WHO compared to the provision outlined in the Malawi Prisons Act (170 g). This has a positive impact on the health of prisoners in the sense that consuming more vegetables can provide essential nutrients, vitamins, and minerals that are beneficial for overall wellbeing. Additionally, a diet rich in vegetables is associated with a reduced risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer. It also contributes to better digestion, weight management, and overall health maintenance (Slavin et al., 2012). However, the implementation of this policy component of the provision of even a smaller quantity of vegetables to prisoners is still a big challenge. This was realized during stage leader consultation interviews at Lilongwe prison, where a prisoner said:

“This is now our fourth week without eating vegetables alongside our meals, sometimes, it even stretches to more than two months without vegetables during our meals. This is due to the lack of initiative from our management to establish a backyard garden around the prison, primarily because of water shortage”.

The study has confirmed that oils (such as groundnut oil at 7 g in the Prisons Act and 33 g in FAO) are recommended in smaller quantities in the Prisons Act compared to the guidelines set by FAO/WHO. This highlights a potential discrepancy in nutritional standards between the two sets of guidelines. This could lead to concerns regarding the adequacy of oil intake for individuals in prison facilities based on international nutritional recommendations (ACS Omega, 2021).

Salt is recommended in larger quantities per day in Malawi Prisons (21 g) compared to the guidelines set by FAO/WHO (6 g). The impact of recommending a larger daily salt intake in Malawi Prisons (21 g) compared to FAO/WHO guidelines (6 g) can potentially lead to adverse health effects, such as increased risk of hypertension is known to be detrimental to overall health and can contribute to various conditions (Prynn et al., 2018).

3.4 Application of national food systems policies in Malawi prisons and their impact on prisoners’ health

It has been identified that there are a few specific national policies addressing prison food systems that pose challenges in their implementation within Malawi prisons (Table 3). Consequently, prisoners encounter challenges in accessing nutritious and balanced diets, hindering efforts to promote healthy eating habits among prisoners. A study conducted by Kachidowo et al. (2020) revealed a 10% prevalence of underweight among prisoners attributed to persistent hunger in Malawi prisons.

Prison management annual reports highlighted a lack of awareness among prison officials regarding existing national food system policies, thereby impeding their effective application in daily operations within the prison facilities. The majority of prison officials, including the commissioners, demonstrated limited knowledge beyond the provisions outlined in the Prisons Act, which offers minimal guidance directly impacting food systems within prisons.

During the targeted consultations with prison management and nutrition officers, collaborative tailored strategies that promote healthy eating habits among prisoners and ensure adequate provision of nutritious food rations for all prisoners were identified. For example, it was highlighted in the Malawi National Multi-Sector Nutrition Policy that:

“The policy will ensure that high impact, cost-effective nutrition interventions are scaled up to all communities, by promoting optimal nutrition in general population and promoting optimal breast feeding practices for children 0–6 months at facility, community and household levels”.

However, existing study literature highlights the inadequacy of daily food provision in Malawi prisons, particularly affecting vulnerable groups such as pregnant and lactating women, as well as those with young children. Research done by Moloko (2018) underscores that food is typically provided only once a day in these prison community settings due to inadequate food provision. This nutritional deficiency may compromise prisoners’ immune systems, increasing their susceptibility to infectious diseases, as noted (Bourke and Berkley, 2016). During the targeted stage leader consultation interview, one of the female prisoners at Kachere female prison said:

“We have children who accompany their mothers here, but the policies do not specifically provide complementary food for children over six months of age. As a result, the food intended for the mothers is shared with these children, which compromises the amount of food each mother is supposed to receive daily.”

4 Bias and limitation

This study had one main limitation: the limited availability of detailed, up-to-date, and reliable data on prison food systems due to the scarcity of research conducted in prisons, especially in Malawi and the surrounding regions.

5 Conclusion

The desk review on food systems policies in Malawi prisons has identified the gaps and impact of national policies governing food systems in Malawi. Policies in prisons are one of the main drivers that determine the improvement of food security and nutritional status, and environmental sustainability in Malawi prisons. Food systems policies have a beneficial effect on the life of a prisoner through the enhancement of food and nutrition security. This review has highlighted the necessity of fulfilling the right to health, including ensuring food and nutrition security and improved health of prisoners without discrimination, and adhering to the minimum standard rules. Access to proteins of one’s choice, whether plant based or animal based, is an essential aspect of the right to food without discrimination.

The Malawi Prisons Act serves as the primary policy document aimed at ensuring food security within Malawi’s Prisons. However, the current reality reveals conflicting outcomes compared to its intended purpose, leading to persistent hunger, food insecurity, and subsequent malnutrition among prisoners in Malawi. The Malawi Prisons Act is outdated and requires review to address the current gaps. The findings suggested that national Policies governing food systems are the key driver of persistent food insecurity in Malawi.

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