Abstract
Colombian high-Andean rural communities face significant limitations in accessing clean thermal energy sources, which perpetuates the use of firewood and fossil fuels, with negative consequences for both human health and the environment. In this context, agricultural residual biomass represents a renewable alternative with theoretical potential for decentralized energy generation in mountainous territories. This study assessed the availability and theoretical energy potential (TEP) of agricultural residues produced by dominant crops in three municipalities located within the area of influence of the Santurbán Páramo (Tona, Silos, and Pamplona). A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining secondary data from the Information System for Rural Agricultural Planning (SIPRA) with structured surveys conducted among local farmers. The TEP was estimated using a technical model that integrates the cultivated area, yield, residue factor (RF), dry matter fraction (DMF), and lower heating value (LHV). Potato and scallion residues were found to be the most significant in terms of volume and energy content. Silos showed the highest TEP (up to 208 TJ/year), followed by Tona, which showed notably high values associated with scallion residues. Among the residues, potato leaves and stalks showed the greatest energy potential, while discarded scallion bulbs were the most significant component of that crop. Variation in TEP across different bibliographic sources highlight the need to standardize technical parameters. Despite the identified potential, several technical, organizational, and technological barriers persist. The findings provide a foundation for designing decentralized biomass-to-energy conversion solutions and informing public policy on rural bioenergy planning in high-Andean contexts.
1 Introduction
High-Andean ecosystems in Colombia, especially the páramos, perform essential ecological functions, including water regulation, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation (; ). However, the rural communities inhabiting these areas face structural limitations in accessing modern energy services, particularly for cooking and heating. The high altitude, geographic dispersion, and limited electrical grid coverage above 3,000 meters above sea level exacerbate reliance on traditional energy sources such as firewood and diesel, which negatively impact both human health and the environment ().
In response to this situation, agricultural residual biomass from high-mountain crops such as potato (Solanum tuberosum) and scallion (Allium fistulosum) emerges as a renewable energy alternative with high potential for mountainous territories. Plant residues such as leaves, stems, peels, and discarded fruits or tubers can serve as thermal energy sources through appropriate technologies such as direct combustion, gasification, anaerobic digestion, or briquetting, provided that technical and operational conditions are met (). However, the use of agricultural biomass for energy in Colombia remains limited, particularly in high-altitude rural areas, where there are significant gaps in technical characterization, management practices, and institutional coordination (; ).
Considering that high-altitude crops have between one and three production cycles per year, depending on agroclimatic conditions and the level of technification, the amount of residual biomass available varies significantly between municipalities and across seasons. This variation directly influences the estimated energy availability and poses logistical challenges for biomass recovery.
This study sought to quantify the availability and theoretical energy potential (TEP) of agricultural residual biomass generated in three municipalities within the area of influence of the Santurbán Páramo: Tona (Santander), Silos, and Pamplona (Norte de Santander). These municipalities are relevant due to their agricultural vocation, proximity to the páramo ecosystem, and potential for implementing rural energy transition strategies in accordance with territorial sustainability criteria. The working hypothesis suggests that, despite infrastructure constraints, residual biomass in the target areas constitutes a viable renewable energy source. This resource could be harnessed according to the principles of circular economy, thermal self-sufficiency, and ecosystem conservation, offering decentralized solutions for energy transition in high-Andean rural regions ().
2 Materials and methods
This study was conducted in three high-altitude municipalities in northeastern Colombia: Tona, Silos, and Pamplona, all located within the ecological and social influence zone of the Santurbán Páramo (Figure 1) (). These rural territories are characterized by elevations exceeding 2,800 meters above sea level, a cold-humid climate, steep slopes, and economies predominantly based on traditional agriculture. The primary crops include potatoes and scallions (; ).
Figure 1
A mixed-methods design was adopted, combining secondary data analysis with primary data collection through field surveys. The secondary data were obtained from the Information System for Rural Agricultural Planning (SIPRA), administered by Colombia’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development. This system compiles historical records (2009–2023) on cultivated area, yield (tons per hectare), and total production categorized by crop and municipality. This database enabled trend analysis and estimation of available agricultural biomass and constituted the primary input for TEP estimations in the three municipalities.
In Tona and Silos, SIPRA data were complemented with structured surveys administered to local farmers. These surveys were aimed at characterizing residue management and disposal practices, as well as perceptions regarding their potential energy use. In Pamplona, due to its remote location and the limited accessibility of rural areas, no surveys could be conducted; therefore, TEP estimations for this municipality relied exclusively on secondary data from SIPRA.
The primary surveys, conducted in 2022 with a total of 28 rural producers, consisted of an 18-item questionnaire combining open- and closed-ended questions on agricultural practices, types and estimated quantities of biomass residues, disposal methods, and perceptions of energy recovery. The responses were organized in Excel spreadsheets and analyzed using descriptive statistics, including absolute and relative frequencies. The primary and secondary data were cross-checked to ensure consistency, particularly regarding the identification of predominant crops in the study areas.
The secondary data used in this study were obtained from the SIPRA portal, which provides historical records (2009–2023) of agricultural production in the three municipalities analyzed. These records were statistically examined to identify the most relevant crops, their historical predominance, and production volumes, in order to estimate the biomass residues generated and the corresponding theoretical energy potential. To ensure reliability, these results were systematically cross-checked with the primary survey data, particularly the qualitative information on residue management and the identification of predominant crops in the study areas.
Theoretical energy potential (TEP), expressed in TJ/year, was estimated using Equation 1, which incorporates the cultivated area, yield, residue-to-product ratio, dry matter fraction, and the lower heating value (LHV) of each biomass type ().
Where A = cultivated area [ha/year], Y = crop yield [t/ha], RF = residue factor [t residue/t product], DMF = dry matter fraction (unitless), LHV = lower heating value [TJ/t].
The biomass residues analyzed included peels, discarded tubers, leaves, and stalks from potatoes, as well as crop residues and discarded bulbs from scallions. Values for RF and DMF (derived from moisture content), as well as the LHV, were obtained from specialized scientific literature. A comparative analysis of parameter values from different sources was performed to assess how variation in technical assumptions affect TEP estimations.
Finally, TEP was quantified by crop and residue type for each municipality using descriptive statistical measures, including mean, median, and interquartile range (IQR). These metrics supported the construction of availability scenarios based on the 25th (Q1) and 75th (Q3) percentiles, reflecting the variability of TEP under actual agricultural conditions. A full biomass recovery scenario was not considered, as making such an assumption would overlook the collection constraints and competing uses reported during field surveys.
3 Results
3.1 Agricultural production and cultivation trends
The agro-productive analysis revealed significant differences among the municipalities studied. Between 2009 and 2023, Silos, Tona, and Pamplona exhibited contrasting patterns of agricultural production and crop specialization. In Silos, intensive potato cultivation predominated, accompanied, to a lesser extent, by peach and strawberries; in Tona, scallion production was predominant, followed by potato and avocado, whereas in Pamplona, production was mainly concentrated in potato and, to a smaller degree, in strawberry and blackberry, although with volumes consistently lower than those reported in Silos and Tona.
The official data on potato production (Table 1) indicated that Silos averaged 35,347 tons annually, significantly exceeding Pamplona (9,570.5 t/year) and Tona (7,411.7 t/year). In contrast, Tona led scallion production with an average output of 54,805.5 tons annually, followed by Silos and Pamplona with 1,326.1 and 94.5 t/year, respectively (Table 2).
Table 1
| Municipality | Q1 | Q3 | Median | Mean | IQR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pamplona | 7489.0 | 11181.0 | 9925.0 | 9570.5 | 3692.0 |
| Silos | 31597.5 | 39733.2 | 33630.0 | 35347.0 | 8135.7 |
| Tona | 4612.5 | 9850.0 | 7500.0 | 7411.7 | 5237.5 |
Potato production statistics by municipality (2009–2023).
Values are expressed in tons per year and include mean, median, and interquartile range.
Source: own elaboration based on SIPRA (2009–2023).
Table 2
| Municipality | Q1 | Q3 | Median | Mean | IQR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pamplona | 50.0 | 90.0 | 60.0 | 94.5 | 40.0 |
| Silos | 648.0 | 1740.0 | 1092.0 | 1326.1 | 1092.0 |
| Tona | 26919.5 | 84875.0 | 55453.0 | 54805.5 | 57955.5 |
Scallion production statistics by municipality (2009–2023).
Values are expressed in tons per year and include mean, median, and interquartile range.
Source: own elaboration based on SIPRA (2009–2023).
3.2 Harvested area and crop yields
In terms of land use, Silos maintained the largest potato-harvested area (1,496 ha/year, Table 3), whereas Tona harvested an average of 1,662 ha/year of scallions (Table 4), underscoring divergent crop specialization.
Table 3
| Municipality | Q1 | Q3 | Median | Mean | IQR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pamplona | 470.5 | 484.0 | 480.0 | 477.5 | 13.5 |
| Silos | 1293.0 | 1736.0 | 1614.0 | 1496.3 | 443.0 |
| Tona | 300.0 | 400.0 | 370.0 | 331.3 | 100.0 |
Harvested area statistics for potato by municipality (2009–2023).
Values are expressed in hectares and include mean, median, and interquartile range.
Source: own elaboration based on SIPRA (2009–2023).
Table 4
| Municipality | Q1 | Q3 | Median | Mean | IQR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pamplona | 5.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 6.4 | 2.0 |
| Silos | 54.0 | 145.0 | 91.0 | 110.5 | 91.0 |
| Tona | 948.0 | 2425.0 | 1925.0 | 1662.4 | 1477.0 |
Harvested area statistics for scallion by municipality (2009–2023).
Values are expressed in hectares and include mean, median, and interquartile range.
Source: own elaboration based on SIPRA (2009–2023).
The average potato yield exceeded 24 t/ha in Silos and reached approximately 22.8 t/ha in Tona (Table 5). Scallion productivity was highest in Tona, averaging 31.5 t/ha (Table 6), reaffirming its agronomic advantage.
Table 5
| Municipality | Q1 | Q3 | Median | Mean | IQR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pamplona | 15.6 | 23.0 | 21.4 | 19.9 | 7.4 |
| Silos | 21.2 | 25.2 | 24.9 | 24.2 | 4.0 |
| Tona | 21.8 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 22.8 | 3.2 |
Potato yield (t/ha) by municipality (2009–2023).
Annual averages and variability in crop yield.
Source: own elaboration based on SIPRA (2009–2023).
Table 6
| Municipality | Q1 | Q3 | Median | Mean | IQR |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pamplona | 10.0 | 15.0 | 10.000000 | 13.409091 | 5.0 |
| Silos | 12.0 | 12.0 | 12.000000 | 11.994536 | 0.0 |
| Tona | 28.8 | 35.0 | 28.806753 | 31.554432 | 6.2 |
Scallion yield (t/ha) by municipality (2009–2023).
Annual averages and variability in crop yield.
Source: own elaboration based on SIPRA (2009–2023).
3.3 Agricultural residue generation
The farmers surveyed reported that crop residues are rarely quantified. Typically, residues are left in the field post-harvest, repurposed as organic fertilizers, composted informally, or used sporadically as livestock feed.
Using the SIPRA data on yields and cultivated areas, agricultural residue quantities were estimated via biomass characterizations sourced from peer-reviewed studies (Table 7). Residue estimates were disaggregated into leaves, stalks, discarded tubers or bulbs, crop residues, and peels.
Table 7
| Crop | Type Residue | FR | M (%) | PCI (TJ/ton) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Potato | Peels | 0.14 | 82.09 | 0.0141 | |
| Leaves and stalks | 0.64 | 91.58 | 0.0135 | ||
| Discarded tubers | 0.30 | 74.74 | 0.0141 | ||
| Peels | 0.15 | 82.09 | 0.0141 | ||
| Discarded tubers | 0.30 | 74.74 | 0.0141 | ||
| Leaves and stalks | 0.94 | 91.58 | 0.0135 | ||
| Scallion | Leaves | 0.37 | 82.53 | 0.0139 | |
| Discarded produce | 0.25 | 71.45 | 0.0147 | ||
| Crop residue | 0.25 | 71.45 | 0.0147 | ||
| Discarded produce | 0.37 | 82.53 | 0.0139 |
Technical parameters of the agricultural residues used for energy potential estimation.
Includes residue factor (RF), moisture content (M), and lower heating value (LHV) for each residue type.
Source: own elaboration based on SIPRA (2009–2023).
3.4 Theoretical energy potential estimation
TEP was calculated using the model presented in the Materials and Methods section. For potatoes, the highest TEP values were associated with leaf and stalk residues, reaching up to 45.03 TJ in Silos using parameters from Rodríguez (Figure 2) and (Figure 3). Discarded tubers (Figures 4, 5) and peels (Figures 6, 7) also contributed, although the low residue factor (RF) of peels reduced their overall impact. The total TEP per crop and data source is presented in Figure 8 () and Figure 9 (), showing a substantial increase in estimated energy when using the latter’s parameters, primarily due to higher RFs (e.g., 0.94 vs. 0.64 for leaves and stalks).
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
For scallions, discarded bulbs yielded the highest energy contribution, particularly in Tona, where TEP peaked at 76.3 TJ using Rodríguez’s parameters (Figure 10, 11). General crop residues, present across all municipalities, exhibited moderate contributions (Figures 12, 13). The aggregate TEP estimates per municipality are detailed in Figure 14 () and Figure 15 ().
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15
These comparative graphs highlight significant variability in TEP estimates depending on the bibliographic source used. This variation has direct implications for bioenergy planning and the design of effective biomass valorization strategies in high-altitude agricultural regions.
4 Discussion
The findings of this study confirm the existence of a substantial volume of agricultural residual biomass with energy potential in high-altitude municipalities within the influence zone of the Santurbán Páramo. The application of the theoretical estimation model (TEP) revealed significant differences by crop, residue type, municipality, and technical parameters. This discussion integrates these variables to identify technical, territorial, and policy implications.
4.1 Comparison between potato and scallion
Potato was identified as the principal source of energy-rich residues, due to both quantity and favorable biomass properties. Leaves and stalks demonstrated high residue factors (up to 0.94) and advantageous LHVs, making them efficient energy sources. These results align with previous high-altitude studies.
Scallions also exhibited relevant TEP values, particularly in Tona, where large, cultivated areas (up to 2,425 ha), high yields (31.5 t/ha), and acceptable LHVs of discarded bulbs converge. However, scallion residues tend to have lower residue factors, limiting their overall contribution to total TEP. This suggests that scallion biomass is viable for energy recovery, particularly when focusing on high-potential residues such as discarded bulbs (e.g., 0.0147 TJ/t; Figure 9).
4.2 Influence of residue type on TEP
Residue type directly influences TEP values. In potatoes, leaves and stalks accounted for more than 60% of the estimated energy potential, followed by discarded tubers. Peels played only a marginal role due to their low RF values (0.14–0.15). In scallions, discarded bulbs contributed more significantly than general crop residues due to their higher energy density and volume. These differences are clearly illustrated in Figures 2–15, where residues with more favorable physicochemical profiles account for the majority of the energy potential.
From a technical standpoint, these findings highlight the need to prioritize residues with higher energy content, lower moisture levels, and a greater relative biomass yield. They also underscore the importance of implementing field-level practices, such as segregation, collection, and drying, to increase energy recovery efficiency.
4.3 Municipal differences and agro-productive dynamics
Silos and Tona contributed most significantly to total TEP, albeit through distinct agro-productive models. Silos exhibited potato specialization, characterized by high yields (24.3 t/ha) and extensive cultivation (median: 1,614 ha), generating large volumes of energy-rich residues. Tona, in contrast, led scallion production, achieving notable TEP despite lower RF values.
Pamplona showed the lowest production and energy contribution. This is due to smaller cultivated areas and the absence of primary data on residue generation and management practices. This limitation highlights the need for further studies to better quantify agricultural residual biomass in this municipality.
4.4 Role of technical parameters in TEP estimation
Among the factors affecting TEP variability, cultivated area and yield were key volume multipliers. However, the residue factor (RF) proved to be the most sensitive parameter, as small changes in its value significantly affected total energy estimates. The choice of bibliographic sources had a decisive impact on the results. For example, consistently reported higher RFs than , leading to TEP increases of up to 30% under the same cultivation conditions.
The differences reported in the RF and other parameters for potato and scallion crops can be attributed to both biological and methodological factors. Agroecological conditions, crop management practices, and varietal differences directly influence biomass production and the proportion of residues. In addition, variation in harvesting techniques, post-harvest handling, and the specific criteria used to define and measure residues contribute to discrepancies across studies (Guzmán-Bello et al., 2023). Therefore, the reported variability in RF values reflects not only differences in cultivation contexts but also in the methodological approaches adopted for residue characterization. This contrast is evident in Figures 7, 8 (for potatoes) and Figures 12, 13 (for scallions). These results underscore the need to standardize methodologies for agricultural residue characterization in Colombia to ensure comparability and reliability in future assessments.
4.5 Implications for rural energy transition
Under the analyzed conditions, agricultural residual biomass constitutes a strategic renewable energy resource for rural territories with limited access to energy. Harnessing this biomass could help reduce pressure on fragile ecosystems, lower firewood consumption, and improve the living conditions of communities still dependent on untreated biomass or fossil fuels.
However, translating theoretical energy potential into practical use involves overcoming several challenges, including low mechanization, lack of collection infrastructure, limited access to appropriate technologies, and weak institutional coordination. Social, economic, and cultural factors also influence the adoption of energy technologies in these regions, with recent studies highlighting that rural households face barriers not only related to technical feasibility but also to affordability and institutional support ().
To make biomass energy solutions viable, the development of low-cost, user-friendly technologies is recommended, such as manual briquette presses, cold climate biodigesters, or efficient combustion stoves. These solutions must be supported by technical training programs, financial incentives, and farm organization strategies.
4.6 Territorial integration and future perspectives
The findings of this study can inform sustainable rural development agendas, bioeconomy frameworks, and climate mitigation strategies. Embedding agricultural biomass valorization into municipal and departmental planning would promote a decentralized, resilient, and ecologically sound energy matrix.
Future research should explore complementary aspects such as economic analysis, life cycle assessment, community health impacts, and experimental validation of the energy behavior of the most promising residues identified.
5 Conclusion
This study confirms that agricultural residues from key crops in Tona, Silos, and Pamplona, particularly potatoes and scallions, represent substantial theoretical energy potential (TEP) for renewable energy deployment in high-altitude Andean territories. By using a model that incorporates cultivated area, yield, residue factor, dry matter content, and lower heating value, the study revealed differentiated patterns based on municipality, crop, and residue type.
Silos emerged as the territory with the highest energy potential due to its specialization in potato farming, high yields, and the availability of residues such as leaves and stalks, which exhibit both a high residue factor (up to 0.94) and an LHV comparable to that of other agricultural residues commonly evaluated for bioenergy applications, confirming their suitability for energy recovery. Meanwhile, Tona demonstrated high scallion production and generated valuable residues such as discarded bulbs, with TEP values reaching nearly 89 TJ per year, particularly when applying the technical parameters reported in the study by Rodríguez.
The estimations of TEP proved to be highly sensitive to the bibliographic sources used for technical parameters, particularly the residue factor. Discrepancies between authors such as and led to substantial variation in estimated energy outputs. For example, in the case of potato leaves and stalks, Mejía and Rondón reported an RF of 0.64, while Rodríguez indicated a much higher value of 0.94, resulting in significant differences in TEP calculations under otherwise similar conditions. This finding underscores the urgent need to standardize methodologies for characterizing agricultural residues in Colombia to ensure comparability, reliability, and technical rigor in future assessments.
Despite the considerable energy potential identified, several barriers hinder its practical utilization. These challenges include low levels of farm mechanization, lack of collection and drying infrastructure, limited rural energy systems, and insufficient institutional incentives for biomass energy recovery. Overcoming these obstacles require the development of accessible technologies tailored to mountainous contexts, along with capacity-building efforts and local governance strategies.
Overall, the findings support the technical feasibility of using agricultural residual biomass as a resource to advance the rural energy transition, grounded in the principles of circular economy, thermal self-sufficiency, and ecosystem sustainability. The calculated TEP provides a robust baseline for designing pilot projects, formulating differentiated municipal energy policies, and implementing decentralized technological solutions. Future research should incorporate economic and financial assessments, experimental validation of energy conversion processes, and participatory studies involving local farming communities to deepen understanding and ensure practical relevance.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author. However, we clarify that secondary data were obtained from the Rural Agricultural Planning Information System (SIPRA) of the Colombian Ministry of Agriculture, and the primary survey data are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author.
Author contributions
DI-M: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology. MP-S: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Supervision. LSM-S: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. LAD-R: Investigation, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. The study was funded by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of the Republic of Colombia (MinCiencias) under Call No. 890 – 2022, Strengthening Science, Technology, and Innovation Capacities in Higher Education Institutions, through the project “Development of a computational methodological tool and renewable energy technologies for the energy transition in high-mountain areas under post-pandemic conditions”, Grant Code: CD 82605 NCT ICETEX 2022-0644. No commercial funding was received, and the funders had no role in the writing or analysis of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments
the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Colombia (MinCiencias) for funding the project, as well as the rural producers from the villages of Montegrande (Silos) and Ucatá (Tona) for their collaboration during fieldwork.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1672988/full#supplementary-material
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Summary
Keywords
decentralized bioenergy, crop residues, tropical highlands, rural energy planning, biomass valorization, thermal efficiency, circular economy in agriculture, territorial energy transition
Citation
Ibarra-Mojica DM, Prada-Soto ML, Monroy-Sarmiento LS and Duarte-Rodríguez LA (2025) Energy potential of agricultural residual biomass in municipalities of the highlands of the Santurbán Páramo, Colombia. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 9:1672988. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2025.1672988
Received
25 July 2025
Accepted
17 September 2025
Published
01 December 2025
Volume
9 - 2025
Edited by
Jorge Andres Ramirez, University of Cauca, Colombia
Reviewed by
German Arturo Lopez, Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas, Colombia
Daniel Ortiz, Colombian Agricultural Research Corporation (CORPOICA), Colombia
Updates
Copyright
© 2025 Ibarra-Mojica, Prada-Soto, Monroy-Sarmiento and Duarte-Rodríguez.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Mabel Lucero Prada-Soto, mabel.prada@unad.edu.coLuis Alejandro Duarte Rodríguez, luis.duarte@unad.edu.co
Disclaimer
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.