ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Sustain. Food Syst.
Sec. Agro-Food Safety
Thirteen-Year Surveillance of Aflatoxin Contamination in Nuts and Nut Products in Kenya (2012–2024)
Provisionally accepted
George Ooko Abong1*
George Wanjala2
Nancy Njeru3
Sheila Kilonzi4
Juliana Kiio5Benard Oloo6
Gekonge Duke7
Danset Misita8
Felix Kiilu9Vincent Chirchir9
Lawrence Aloo10Patrick Mbogo11Maryann Kindiki8Allan Waigwa12
James Njiraini8Maureen Waswa13Dorcas Muthusi14Lydiah Wanjiru15Patrick Kirimi9
David Kavunja16- 1University of Nairobi Faculty of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya
- 2Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
- 3Katumani, Kenya Agricultural & Livestock Research Organization, Nairobi, Kenya
- 4Karatina University, Karatina, Kenya
- 5Foods, Nutrition and Dietetics, Kenyatta University School of Public Health and Applied Human Sciences, Nairobi, Kenya
- 6Egerton University Faculty of Agriculture, Njoro, Kenya
- 7University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
- 8Kenya Bureau of Standards, Nairobi, Kenya
- 9Agriculture and Food Authority, Nairobi, Kenya
- 10National Public Health Laboratory, Nairobi, Kenya
- 11Kenya Plant Health Inspection Service, Nairobi, Kenya
- 12Unga Limited, Nairobi, Kenya
- 13Pest Control Produce Board, Nairobi, Kenya
- 14Government Chemist, Nairobi, Kenya
- 15Consumer Grassroots, Nairobi, Kenya
- 16World Food Programme Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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Aflatoxin contamination in peanuts and tree nuts remains a persistent public health and food safety concern across Africa, including Kenya. Associated with hepatocellular carcinoma, acute toxicity, and exacerbation of conditions such as hepatitis B, aflatoxins pose severe health risks and significant economic burdens. This study provides a 13-year (2012–2024) evaluation of total aflatoxins and aflatoxin B1 in peanut kernels, peanut butter, cashew nuts, and macadamia nuts in Kenya. A total of 2,178 data points were analyzed for conformity with national (10 µg/kg) and international Codex (15 µg/kg) regulatory limits. Peanut kernels exhibited the lowest compliance, ranging from 50–62% (10 µg/kg) and 50–66% (15 µg/kg). Peanut butter performed moderately better, with compliance levels of 61–86% and 65–89%, respectively. In contrast, cashew and macadamia nuts consistently demonstrated >95% compliance across all years, with macadamia achieving 100% compliance. Although compliance rates were slightly higher under the Codex standard, statistical analysis revealed no significant difference (p > 0.05). These findings highlight the critical need to strengthen surveillance systems beyond formal markets to include informal outlets and farm-level production, particularly for peanuts. Enhanced pre-and post-harvest management, together with coordinated value chain interventions and stakeholder collaboration, will be essential to reducing aflatoxin risks and safeguarding both public health and trade in Kenya's nut sector.
Keywords: Tree nuts, aflatoxin, surveillance, Compliance, Standards
Received: 31 Jul 2025; Accepted: 08 Dec 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Abong, Wanjala, Njeru, Kilonzi, Kiio, Oloo, Duke, Misita, Kiilu, Chirchir, Aloo, Mbogo, Kindiki, Waigwa, Njiraini, Waswa, Muthusi, Wanjiru, Kirimi and Kavunja. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: George Ooko Abong
Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.