The role of information and communication technologies in enhancing farmers' access to extension services: evidence from Ingquza Hill Local Municipality

Khwidzhilli, Rendani Humphrey; Ijatuyi, Enioluwa Jonathan; Diko, Pakama

doi:10.3389/fsufs.2025.1704550

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Front. Sustain. Food Syst., 19 November 2025

Sec. Land, Livelihoods and Food Security

Volume 9 - 2025 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1704550

The role of information and communication technologies in enhancing farmers' access to extension services: evidence from Ingquza Hill Local Municipality

Rendani Humphrey Khwidzhilli¹^*

Enioluwa Jonathan Ijatuyi²

Pakama Diko³

¹Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, Florida Campus, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa
²Boldpanda, Department of Sales and Market Research, Johannesburg, South Africa
³Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform, Lusikisiki College of Education, Lusikisiki, South Africa

Background: Access to timely and reliable agricultural information remains a major challenge for smallholder farmers in South Africa's rural municipalities. Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) have emerged as transformative tools to enhance communication, knowledge sharing, and service delivery in agricultural extension systems. This study investigates how ICTs improve smallholder farmers' access to extension services in the Ingquza Hill Local Municipality, Eastern Cape Province.

Methods: A descriptive survey design was employed. Data were collected from 104 smallholder farmers using a structured questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews. Respondents were selected through a combination of convenience and random sampling to ensure diversity and representativeness. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, to describe patterns of ICT access, utilization, and constraints.

Results: The majority of respondents (64.7%) were women, with 20.2% aged between 26 and 30 years. ICT adoption for agricultural purposes was widespread (75%), and 65.5% of farmers relied primarily on mobile phones to access extension information. WhatsApp (44.1%) and Facebook (44.1%) were identified as the most commonly used digital platforms for obtaining agricultural advice. However, persistent barriers such as poor internet connectivity (39.4%), high data costs (38.5%), and limited digital literacy (18.3%) constrained optimal utilization of ICT-based extension services.

Discussion and conclusion: The findings demonstrate that ICTs particularly mobile and social media platforms play a pivotal role in bridging information gaps and improving smallholder farmers' access to agricultural extension services. The study concludes that digital tools have become essential for promoting inclusivity and efficiency in agricultural communication systems. To enhance the effectiveness of ICT-based extension services, the study recommends targeted investments in rural ICT infrastructure, digital literacy training, and multi-stakeholder partnerships to promote sustainable, digitally enabled agricultural transformation in Ingquza Hill Local Municipality.

1 Introduction

One of the targets of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) No. 8 emphasizes the benefits of new technologies, especially Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), in the fight against poverty. E-Agriculture was one of the outcomes of the MDGs following the World Summit on the information society meetings in 2003 and 2005, respectively (Cox and Sseguya, 2015). ICTs, also referred to as e-agriculture, encompass information, communication, and technology to disseminate information, playing a significant role in agriculture and rural development in the digital age (Vyas and Sinoriya, 2020). The use of ICTs has become increasingly central to global development, particularly in addressing rural poverty, food insecurity, and sustainable livelihoods. In agriculture, ICTs are transforming the way farmers access, share, and apply information to enhance productivity and resilience (Sakshi et al., 2024; Daum, 2023). These tools, ranging from mobile phones and social media to drones and data platforms, bridge communication gaps between farmers and extension agents, enabling data-driven decision-making (Chergui and Kechadi, 2022; FAO, 2022).

Agricultural extension services are crucial for disseminating innovations and enhancing the productivity of smallholder farmers (Hassan et al., 2022). Yet, in South Africa, extension systems often suffer from underfunding and limited reach (Mkhize, 2024; Kansiime et al., 2022). ICT-based solutions, such as WhatsApp, SMS, and radio programs, are helping to extend the reach of extension communication, providing farmers with timely and cost-effective information (Mutanga et al., 2023; Ireri et al., 2021).

However, the benefits of digital agriculture are not uniformly experienced. Persistent digital divides caused by weak internet connectivity, high costs, and limited digital literacy continue to marginalize rural smallholders (Aja et al., 2024). The Eastern Cape Province, one of South Africa's most rural and economically deprived regions, faces such inequalities (Bontsa et al., 2023).

This study focuses on Ingquza Hill Local Municipality (IHLM) within the OR Tambo District, where agriculture plays a crucial role in underpinning local livelihoods. IHLM was selected because of its active agricultural cooperatives and government-supported extension programs, yet limited research explores how ICTs influence extension access in this context. The study aims to analyze the role of ICTs in improving smallholder farmers' access to agricultural extension services in IHLM, focusing on the types of ICTs used, levels of adoption, and key barriers to utilization.

2 Literature review

The integration of ICT in agriculture has been widely recognized as a transformative force for improving productivity, efficiency, and farmer decision-making. ICTs convert complex data into actionable knowledge, enabling real-time decision support and enhancing extension services through diverse communication platforms (Havinal, 2020; Gebresenbet et al., 2023). By providing timely and accessible agricultural information, ICTs increase awareness, adoption of best practices, yields, and household incomes (Mulungu et al., 2025).

ICTs also redefine extension delivery by moving beyond one-way communication to interactive, farmer-to-farmer learning and co-innovation (Khatri et al., 2024). Tools such as mobile phones, social media platforms, radio, and television remain the most widely used, with mobile penetration expanding rapidly in rural areas (Nazari and Hasbullah, 2008; Irungu et al., 2015). WhatsApp and Facebook have emerged as particularly influential in facilitating real-time knowledge exchange and peer learning, while radio and television continue to play a crucial role in disseminating locally relevant information in accessible languages (Isaya et al., 2018; Ramavhale et al., 2020). Print and internet-based platforms supplement these tools but remain constrained by literacy levels, affordability, and infrastructure barriers (Farooq et al., 2007; Kameswari et al., 2011).

Despite their potential, the adoption of ICT in rural agricultural contexts faces persistent challenges, including digital divides, limited internet access, high costs of advanced devices, and low levels of digital literacy (Parwez, 2014; Aja et al., 2024). Gender disparities further exacerbate exclusion, underscoring the need for policies and interventions that address inequality, affordability, and capacity building (Sharmin, 2019; Febro et al., 2020). Addressing these barriers is crucial for ensuring inclusive innovation and enabling ICTs to deliver on their promise of enhancing rural livelihoods, improving food security, and promoting sustainable agricultural systems.

Overall, ICTs have become indispensable tools for disseminating knowledge, enhancing communication efficiency, and delivering advisory services in agriculture. Their effective deployment offers smallholder farmers improved access to markets, training, and information, while simultaneously reducing transaction costs and enabling climate-smart and resilient practices. However, sustained impact requires investments in infrastructure, digital literacy, gender-sensitive approaches, and localized content development to ensure equitable access and long-term sustainability. Figure 1 displays the various types of ICT available to smallholder farmers.

Figure 1

Figure 1. ICTs used by smallholder farmers. Source Authors.

2.1 Theoretical and conceptual framework

The study is guided by the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) frameworks. The UTAUT model (Venkatesh et al., 2003) emphasizes four key constructs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions, which collectively shape technology adoption. These studies explain how farmers perceive the usefulness, ease of use, and enabling conditions of ICT, such as connectivity and affordability (Aja et al., 2024; Cahyani et al., 2024).

The DOI theory (Rogers, 2003) complements this by describing how innovations spread based on relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, and trialability. In agriculture, these frameworks explain why farmers adopt specific ICT tools such as mobile phones over others, based on perceived benefits and adaptability (Emeana and Trenchard, 2020).

2.2 ICTs and agricultural extension

ICTs are transforming extension systems by facilitating two-way, real-time communication and increasing the reach of advisory services (Daum, 2023; FAO, 2022). In sub-Saharan Africa, mobile and social media platforms are particularly effective in diffusing agricultural innovations (Chergui and Kechadi, 2022). For example, WhatsApp groups have become key spaces for farmers to share experiences, exchange advice, and learn collaboratively (Ireri et al., 2021).

2.3 ICT adoption in South Africa

In South Africa, mobile penetration and government-led digital initiatives are expanding, yet rural areas still face connectivity and literacy gaps (Maurya et al., 2025). Studies in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal show growing use of mobile phones and social media for accessing extension services (Loki and Mdoda, 2025). However, affordability and infrastructure remain significant constraints (Khatri et al., 2024).

2.4 Research gap and rationale

Existing research highlights ICT adoption but rarely links it directly to extension access outcomes in localized contexts such as IHLM. This study fills that gap by examining how ICT tools influence access to extension services and the socio-economic factors that shape their adoption.

3 Methodology

This study was conducted in Ingquza Hill Local Municipality (IHLM), located in the OR Tambo District of South Africa's Eastern Cape Province (see Figure 2). The municipality, which encompasses Flagstaff and Lusikisiki, has a population of approximately 320,000 people across 32 predominantly rural wards, where subsistence farming is a central component of livelihoods (Bolitina, 2024; Lwandiso et al., 2021; Magaya, 2021). IHLM was selected due to its historical involvement in agricultural cooperatives and its established extension service network, both of which play a vital role in supporting smallholder farmers. Despite these assets, it remains one of South Africa's most underdeveloped and economically disadvantaged rural areas.

Figure 2

A map showing South Africa with a focus on the Eastern Cape province. The O.R. Tambo District Municipality is highlighted with various areas marked in different colors: King Sabata Dalindyebo in green, Mhlontlo in light green, Nyandeni in yellow, Ngquza Hill in orange, and Port St Johns in red. An arrow points to Ngquza Hill, labeled as the study area. A legend indicates the district municipality and the color-coded areas.

Figure 2. Map showing the study area. Source Authors.

3.1 Research design

A descriptive survey design was employed to analyze the use of ICT and access to extension services among smallholder farmers in IHLM.

3.2 Population and sampling

The target population consisted of registered smallholder farmers engaged in crop and livestock production. A two-stage sampling method was employed: convenience sampling was used to select wards, followed by random sampling of participants. To determine the sample size, Yamane's formula was applied as follows: n = N/(1 + N(e²), where n is the sample size, N is the population size, and e is the margin of error (set at 5%). As reported by Ngirabakunzi et al. (2020), this formula provided a statistically reliable sample at a 95% confidence level. The final sample was selected with the assistance of local agricultural extension and advisory services to ensure accuracy and the inclusion of relevant participants. $Y a m a n e^{'} s F o r m u l a = n = \frac{140}{1 + (140 \times 0.05)}$

\begin{array}{l} n = \frac{140}{1 + (140 \times 0.0025)} \\ n = \frac{140}{1 + 0.35} \\ n = \frac{140}{1.35} \\ = 103, 7037037037 \\ = 104 \end{array}

3.3 Data collection and instrument

Data were collected through a structured questionnaire, which was divided into sections on demographics, ICT use, and access challenges. A pilot test (n = 10) yielded a Cronbach's alpha of 0.87, confirming reliability. Questionnaires were administered face-to-face from May to July 2024, in English and isiXhosa, with informed consent obtained.

3.4 Data analysis

Data were processed using SPSS v27. Descriptive statistics summarized key variables.

3.5 Ethical clearance

Ethical clearance was granted by the University Research Ethics Committee (Ref IHLM/PD/2023/014).

4 Results and discussion

The study was conducted using a total of 104 questionnaires distributed to smallholder farmers reflecting variations in age, gender, educational status, and employment status, thereby providing a broad perspective on the characteristics of the farming population in the study area.

4.1 Gender

The study revealed a diverse demographic profile of smallholder farmers, with women (64.7%) significantly outnumbering men (35.3%). According to Magadla et al. (2021), gender is a key factor in household decision-making, particularly in deep rural communities like IHLM. This aligns with Njelekela and Sanga (2015), indicating that women are increasingly involved in farming activities and are more involved in farming than men. The gender findings have significant implications for how ICT can help smallholder farmers in IHLM gain better access to agricultural extension and consultancy services.

4.2 Age

The age distribution, with the majority of respondents aged 26–30, underscores the potential for youth-driven agricultural transformation, followed by those aged 51–60. Age significantly influenced ICT use, with younger farmers exhibiting higher adoption rates, which supports the UTAUT's performance expectancy construct. This trend aligns with findings by Mansour (2024), who notes a growing interest in agriculture among young adults. The age distribution underscores the potential for youth-led agricultural transformation in South Africa. With strategic investments in technology, entrepreneurship, and youth-focused agricultural programs, both government and private stakeholders can harness this demographic to stimulate economic growth, reduce unemployment, and promote a more sustainable and resilient agricultural sector. This is illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1

Table 1. Distribution of the age of respondents.

4.3 Racial group

The study took into consideration the respondents' racial group. The results showed that 1.9% of respondents belonged to non-black groups, whereas 96.1% of respondents identified as black.

4.4 Marital status

The study investigated the respondents' marital status, revealing that 52.9% of respondents were single, 35.6% were married, 9.6% were widowed, and 1.9% were divorced.

4.5 Employment status

The study showed that 19.2% of respondents work for themselves, while 14.4% are employed, and 66.4% are unemployed. The high unemployment rate (66.4%) among respondents further underscores the need for targeted interventions to address the region's economic challenges. This outcome is consistent with Mdoda and Mdiya (2022), who found that poverty and high unemployment rates are prevalent in the Eastern Cape Province. This unemployment profile highlights the need for focused efforts to address unemployment and promote economic growth.

4.6 Source of income

The result indicated that the majority of respondents (64.5%) rely on social grants, followed by entrepreneurs (19.2%), wages (14.4%), and gifts (1.9%). This suggests that a large number of smallholder farmers in the IHLM are primarily dependent on social grants, and it also highlights potential weaknesses in their financial security. This result aligns with Miyajima (2024), who examined the relationship between employment and means-tested social grants in South Africa and found that social grant spending is comparatively high, despite the country's chronically high unemployment rate.

4.7 Educational level

The results indicated that the majority of respondents (30.8%) had a tertiary education, followed by 26% of respondents who had completed grades 9 to 12. Respondents with 20.2% indicated that they only possessed matric certificates (i.e., secondary school certificates). 12.5% of the respondents indicated that they hold a national certificate, while 6.7% and 3.8% stated that they had completed grade R to grade 8, respectively, and had never attended school.

4.8 Farming experience (years)

According to the survey, 35.6% of smallholder farmers in IHLM have <5 years of farming experience, while the majority, at 40.4%, have between 5 and 10 years of farming experience. 7.7% have more than 20 years of farming experience, compared to 16.3% with 11–20 years of farming. Table 2 provides a summary of the findings.

Table 2

Table 2. Farming experience of respondents in years.

4.9 ICT awareness among smallholder farmers

The study's findings reveal a high level of awareness of ICTs among respondents, with 94% indicating familiarity, while only 6% reported a lack of awareness. This suggests that ICTs are widely recognized within the agricultural community and hold considerable potential for enhancing agrarian practices. These results corroborate the findings of Bontsa et al. (2023), who similarly reported significant awareness of ICTs among smallholder farmers. However, despite this widespread awareness, the effective adoption of modern digital technologies remains limited, particularly in rural contexts. Bontsa et al. (2023) attribute this constraint to the unique infrastructural and socio-economic challenges prevalent in rural areas in South Africa, which hinder the seamless integration of ICTs into daily farming operations. Thus, while awareness is high, targeted interventions are needed to bridge the gap between ICT familiarity and practical adoption.

4.10 Awareness of ICT applications in agriculture among smallholder farmers

The study's findings indicated that 25% of farmers in IHLM do not utilize ICTs on their farms, whereas 75% of smallholder farmers do. This shows a high degree of adoption. This result suggests that the IHLM's smallholders are aware of ICTs and are increasingly utilizing them to access extension services.

4.11 Primary ICT tools used by smallholder farmers

Cell phones remain the most widely used ICT tool among smallholder farmers, particularly in rural areas (Mapiye et al., 2023). In this study, 57% of respondents reported using mobile phones for agricultural information and communication, underscoring their accessibility and utility. The adoption of smartphones by 35.5% of respondents further indicates a growing potential for more advanced ICT-based agricultural interventions. Internet usage was reported by 31.2%, while ownership and use of personal computers and laptops remain relatively low at 4.3% and 8.6%, respectively. Radio, once a dominant source of agricultural information, registered the lowest usage at 3.2%. These findings align with Aker and Mbiti (2010), who observed that over 60% of individuals in developing regions, including South Africa and sub-Saharan Africa, use mobile phones, suggesting their pivotal role in information dissemination. Given their affordability and ease of use, mobile phones provide a scalable and impactful platform for enhancing agricultural productivity, improving market access, and facilitating knowledge exchange among smallholder farmers.

4.12 Frequency of the usage of ICTs by smallholder farmers

The effective use of ICTs has significantly improved smallholder farmers' access to agricultural extension services in the IHLM. ICT tools are increasingly employed to enhance decision-making, bridge information gaps, and boost agricultural productivity. However, the frequency of ICT utilization varies among farmers. Notably, 29.4% of respondents reported daily use of ICTs, while 44.1% indicated using them weekly to access agricultural extension services. Respondents indicated that 11.8% used it on a rare basis, 10.8% monthly, and 3.9% never, respectively.

4.13 Primary ICT tools used to access extension services

The data indicate that mobile phones are the most commonly used ICT tool, with 65.4% of respondents relying on them, highlighting their accessibility and widespread adoption in rural areas. Smartphones followed at 30.8%, suggesting that a significant number of farmers have access to internet-enabled devices. Additionally, 16.3% of respondents reported using the internet predominantly via smartphones for accessing extension services. While less prevalent, radio remains relevant for 7.7% of farmers, particularly those with limited access to digital technologies. The use of computers (3.8%) and laptops (2.9%) is minimal, indicating restricted availability or preference for desktop computing. These findings align with those of Sennuga et al. (2020) and Njelekela and Sanga (2015), who also found that mobile phones, televisions, and radios were key sources of agricultural information for smallholder farmers. In the IHLM context, mobile phones remain the most reliable and widely adopted ICT tools for accessing agricultural innovations and advisory services.

4.14 Types of information frequently sought through ICT

The study investigated the types of information that smallholder farmers in IHLM commonly seek using ICT. In line with Akintonde et al. (2021), who discovered comparable patterns in the Eastern Cape Province. The results indicate that agricultural information is the most commonly sought-after type of information via ICT. The majority of respondents in IHLM use ICT primarily to access agricultural information. Half of the respondents (50%) reported seeking general agricultural knowledge through ICT platforms. This was followed by specific uses such as farming techniques (26.9%), disease and pest control (12.5%), weather updates (6.7%), market prices (2.9%), and insurance-related information (1%). These findings underscore the central role ICT plays as a conduit for agricultural knowledge among smallholder farmers, facilitating informed decision-making and improved farm management.

4.15 The primary reasons for using ICT to access extension services

The findings reveal that farmers value the efficiency and accessibility of ICT-enabled services. A significant proportion (44.2%) identified speed of information delivery as the main reason for ICT use, reflecting the critical importance of timely access to agricultural data. Additionally, convenience (30.8%) and access to a diverse range of information sources (27.9%) were also highlighted, emphasizing the flexibility and breadth ICT tools offer. These results underscore the need for robust and reliable ICT infrastructure to support the prompt dissemination of extension services and foster sustainable agricultural development.

4.16 Types of ICTs used by smallholder farmers to access extension services

4.16.1 Access to the internet

The results indicate that 89.3% of respondents rely on mobile data for internet connectivity, while 3.9% have limited access, and 1.8% reported no access at all. These findings align with the growing trend of mobile technology adoption in rural settings and support Khan et al. (2020), who emphasized the role of mobile phones as critical communication tools in sectors such as agriculture. While mobile data significantly enables internet use among smallholder farmers, the existence of a minority with limited or no access highlights ongoing challenges related to the digital divide and equitable access to vital agricultural information.

4.17 Preferred communication channels for receiving agricultural information

A significant majority (74%) of respondents in IHLM reported Facebook and WhatsApp as their primary platforms for agricultural information. Voice calls were preferred by 18.3%, while in-person visits and text messages each accounted for 7.7% of the responses. Only 3.8% of farmers indicated a preference for email communication. The prominence of Facebook and WhatsApp underscores smallholder farmers' preference for platforms that offer real-time communication, ease of use, and broad accessibility. These findings support those of Takahashi et al. (2025), who demonstrated that social media outperforms traditional ICT tools (e.g., SMS and basic mobile phones) in terms of reach, responsiveness, and user engagement, thereby highlighting its potential for enhancing agricultural extension delivery.

4.18 ICT Tools that are owned by smallholder farmers of IHLM

A substantial majority (81.7%) reported owning smartphones, indicating widespread adoption of mobile technology. In contrast, 19.2% owned radios, 8.7% had computers, and only 1.9% reported owning tablets. These results align with Mdoda and Mdiya (2022), who noted the predominance of mobile phone ownership among farmers in developing countries. The high smartphone penetration suggests a growing reliance on mobile devices for accessing agricultural information. At the same time, the low ownership of computers and tablets may limit access to more complex digital resources.

4.19 Information dissemination to smallholder farmers

The survey revealed that peer discussions (35.6%) and workshops or training sessions constitute the primary sources of agricultural information for smallholder farmers (SHFs) in IHLM. In contrast, traditional printed materials (5.8%) and online tutorials or videos (6.7%) demonstrated limited usage. These findings align with those of Baral et al. (2018), who identified field visits and participatory training as the most effective and commonly employed extension methods. The results underscore the continued importance of interpersonal and experiential learning in rural agricultural contexts.

4.20 Challenges faced by smallholder farmers in accessing extension services

The agricultural sector, particularly farming, is increasingly integrating digital technologies, yet SHFs face distinct barriers in utilizing Agricultural Information and Communication Technologies (AICTs). The lack of internet connectivity emerged as the most significant challenge, reported by 39.4% of SHFs in IHLM. This was closely followed by the high cost of technology and internet data (38.5%), while limited ICT literacy affected 18.3% of respondents. Additionally, 15.4% of farmers cited a lack of access to ICT devices, and only 1.9% reported no challenges. These findings are consistent with those of Mdoda and Mdiya (2022), who identified poor network infrastructure as a key constraint limiting the adoption of ICT among SHFs. Addressing these barriers is crucial for leveraging digital tools to enhance agricultural productivity and rural development. These barriers underscore the need for enhanced infrastructure, accessible technology solutions, and training programs to improve digital literacy among farmers.

4.21 Perceived effectiveness of ICT in enhancing access to agricultural information among SHFs

SHFs in IHLM were asked to evaluate the effectiveness of ICTs in improving their access to agricultural information. The results indicate a strong consensus on the value of ICTs. A significant proportion of respondents (47.1%) acknowledged that ICTs are effective in enhancing access to agricultural information, while an additional 44.2% considered them highly beneficial. Only a small fraction (8.7%) remained neutral, suggesting broad recognition of the role ICT plays in agricultural knowledge dissemination. These findings are consistent with Mapiye et al. (2023), who noted the effective deployment of ICT in improving the accessibility and relevance of agricultural information among smallholder communities.

4.22 Assessing the relevance of extension services to smallholder farmers' needs

Timely access to relevant agricultural information is crucial for smallholder farmers to improve productivity, increase income, and enhance their overall livelihoods. While extension services play a critical role in disseminating this knowledge, their effectiveness depends largely on how well they align with the specific needs of farmers. González-García et al. (2012) emphasize that access to relevant information is crucial for enhancing agricultural output and income, particularly among producers in underserved regions. Assessing the relevance of extension services is therefore critical to ensuring their responsiveness and effectiveness. In IHLM, 53.8% of smallholder farmers reported that extension services were relevant to their needs, 29.8% found them extremely relevant, while 16.3% considered them only somewhat relevant.

4.23 The frequency of seeking information from agricultural extensions

Agricultural extension services play a pivotal role in equipping smallholder farmers with essential information to improve decision-making and farming practices (Norton and Alwang, 2020). The frequency with which farmers engage with extension services is a key determinant of agricultural development, as it directly influences the adoption of technologies, innovative techniques, and best practices (Sobalaje et al., 2019). Understanding these engagement patterns allows extension agents to tailor their support more effectively to the evolving needs of farmers, thereby enhancing productivity and contributing to rural development (Munyua, 2011). In this study, farmers were asked about their use of ICT to access information related to extension services. As shown in Table 3, 66.3% of respondents reported seeking information frequently, 32.7% occasionally, and only 1.0% rarely. These findings align with Bihonegn (2024), who similarly reported a high rate of engagement with extension services among smallholder farmers, reaffirming the central role of agricultural extension in supporting development and livelihoods in Africa.

Table 3

Table 3. The frequency of respondents seeking agricultural information.

4.24 Types of feedback provided by smallholder farmers on ICT-based agricultural information

Effective agricultural extension programs rely heavily on timely and relevant feedback from smallholder farmers. Understanding the nature of this feedback is essential, as it can enhance the effectiveness of ICT applications in agricultural extension. Surveyed results reveal that a majority of farmers (77.5%) provided positive feedback on the agricultural information received via ICT platforms, indicating general satisfaction with the support and knowledge provided by extension agents. Meanwhile, 17.6% of respondents offered constructive criticism, suggesting areas where the delivery of ICT-based services could be improved. A small proportion of farmers (3.9%) reported providing no feedback, and 1.0% selected “others.” These findings underscore the importance of continually evaluating and refining ICT-enabled extension systems to ensure they effectively meet the evolving needs of smallholder farmers.

5 Conclusion

This study highlights the crucial role that ICTs play in increasing smallholder farmers' access to advisory and extension services in IHLM. ICTs are central to building inclusive, knowledge-driven agricultural systems. Strengthening digital access and literacy in IHLM will not only improve extension delivery but also advance rural livelihoods, gender equality, and sustainable food systems across South Africa. The results highlight the significant role that ICT plays in facilitating access to farming-related information, with a particular emphasis on mobile phones and social media platforms. The study found that 64.7% of the farmers in the municipality were women, with the majority (20.2%) of farmers falling within the 26–30 age group. This demographic is highly engaged in farming, with 75% of the respondents actively using ICTs for agricultural purposes. Mobile phones were identified as the primary ICT tool, with 57% of farmers using them for access to extension services. WhatsApp and Facebook were the most commonly used platforms for obtaining farming information, as 44.1% of farmers reported accessing extension services through these means. Despite the widespread use of mobile phones, a considerable portion (65.5%) of farmers indicated that they rely on mobile phones as their primary means of obtaining extension information.

Although ICT usage is high, the study also revealed several key challenges. Limited access to the internet, particularly in rural areas, was a significant barrier to progress. This issue was compounded by the relatively low ownership of advanced digital devices, which restricts some farmers' ability to engage with ICT-based extension services fully. Additionally, the financial constraints of smallholder farmers, with many relying on social grants, limit their ability to invest in more advanced ICT tools. In terms of service effectiveness, the study found that 50% of farmers sought information related to agricultural practices, with a smaller proportion accessing information on pest control (12.5%) and weather updates (6.7%). These findings underscore the importance of addressing the barriers to ICT access while also recognizing the substantial potential that ICT-based extension services offer for improving farming practices and productivity.

6 Recommendations

Based on the presented findings, the study recommends expanding ICT infrastructures in rural Eastern Cape, particularly in IHLM. It is also worth noting that there is a need for subsidized mobile data and the promotion of affordable devices. It is also recommended to develop local-language ICT training for farmers. Leveraging social media in official extension workshops and outreaches will contribute to improved ICT adoption. It is also worth encouraging more youth participation, as per the study's findings in digital agriculture and fostering public-private partnerships for scalable innovation and monitoring ICT initiatives through regular impact evaluations.

7 Limitations and future research

The study's descriptive design limits causal inference, and the exclusion of non-ICT users may bias results. Longitudinal and mixed-methods designs, exploring gendered and regional differences in ICT adoption, should be considered for further studies.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Prof. JW Swanepoel University of Free State. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

RK: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EI: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. PD: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

EI was employed by Boldpanda Pty Ltd.

The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

Aja, O. O., Asiabaka, C. C., Ani, A. O., and Matthews-Njoku, E. C. (2024). Comparative study of the socioeconomic characteristics and digital literacy level of agricultural extension personnel in Imo and Ebonyi States, South-East, Nigeria. Agric. Sci. 15, 230–245. doi: 10.4236/as.2024.152013