Artificially remediated plants impact soil physiochemical properties along the riparian zones of the three gorges dam in China

1 Introduction

Riparian areas play a crucial role as vital connectors between hillsides and water channels, making them paramount for the conservation of aquatic ecosystems (Cory et al., 2023; Arif et al., 2024). They serve as unique settings for rich biological interactions between land and water environments (Bhatt, 2022; Chen et al., 2022). However, these systems are also vulnerable to modifications induced by human activities (Hira et al., 2023), such as deforestation, soil alteration, and the adoption of various farming techniques (Bhatt, 2022; Fiorillo et al., 2022). These zones have been extensively utilized in recent decades, resulting in deterioration of water quality, increased soil erosion, depletion of nitrogen, and an increase in saline content (Adla et al., 2022). The vital functions of these zones are threatened (Said and Misana, 2022). Soils and vegetation in riparian zones are essential elements in river ecosystems, impacting biodiversity and environmental chemistry (Majumdar and Avishek, 2023; Zheng et al., 2023). Within these zones, the development of specific vegetation types is crucial for maintaining ecological balance, stabilizing the surrounding land, and enhancing crop productivity and species diversity (Moore et al., 2023; Narayanan and Ma, 2023). It is imperative to acknowledge that the effectiveness of interventions based on vegetation may vary significantly based on the intricacies and fluctuations of the nearby ecosystems (Rauf et al., 2023). Thus, even though certain plants can reduce soil erosion, enhance soil stability, and provide food and shelter to a variety of animal species (Cotas et al., 2023; Rathod et al., 2023), it is essential to conduct comprehensive ecological impact assessments to fully comprehend their potential consequences. This approach helps in recognizing and mitigating hazards, especially in areas with delicate or already stressed ecosystems, such as competition with nearby plants or habitat change. The soil characteristics in these regions influence numerous biological processes, including the breakdown of organic matter, carbon storage, and nitrogen changes (González Giro et al., 2023; Omoarelojie and van Staden, 2023). To ensure that the introduction or promotion of specific plant species does not unintentionally result in ecological imbalances, it is essential to recognize these dynamics. Given this, several soil properties are crucial for sustainable development and can serve as markers to assess how well management approaches aimed at reviving soils and ecosystems are working (Wang and Delavar, 2023; Yusof et al., 2023).

Riparian vegetation is integral to nutrient distribution and availability (Bita-Nicolae, 2023). Similarly, the growth and succession of riparian vegetation are greatly influenced by soil and other environmental conditions. Moreover, riparian vegetation impacts the dispersion, aggregation, sedimentation, moisture content, and size of soil particles (Crimaldi and Lama, 2021; Aparício et al., 2023; Ray et al., 2023). Congruently, landscape ecology recognizes the importance of riparian vegetation as a filter, capturing sediment and nutrients as they move through the watershed (Nakamura, 2022). It has been demonstrated that dense plant growth improves surface roughness, which slows runoff and allows water infiltration into the soil (Zhu et al., 2020). It not only reduces soil erosion but also reduces particulate matter entering rivers, including soil particles and associated pollutants. It has been proven that riparian vegetation contributes to healthy aquatic ecosystems by improving water quality (Nsenga Kumwimba et al., 2023). Furthermore, changes in soil chemical properties may further impact riparian vegetation’s health and function. In artificially remediated plant (ARP) soils, a diverse range of vegetation, including species such as Cynodon dactylon, Salix matsudana, Taxodium disticum, and Hemarthria altissima, contributes to the filtration of the landscape. The capacity to retain soil structure and collect particles varies across these species. However, it is essential to recognize the possibility of uneven or even detrimental effects in delicate areas, like the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) area. Due to their varying capacities, these vegetation types require extensive ecological evaluations, ongoing monitoring, and the application of adaptive management techniques in ARPs. These procedures are necessary to prevent negative effects on the environment and local biodiversity by properly comprehending and managing ecological interactions and their long-term implications. This strategic approach is essential to ensuring that ARP makes a positive contribution to ecological balance and sustainability, especially in areas impacted by major infrastructure projects like the TGD.

It is certainly clear that ARP soil has several effects on physical properties, including soil temperature, oxidation reduction potential, bulk density, and water content (Olagoke et al., 2022; Singh et al., 2022; Zanli et al., 2022; Shahbaz et al., 2023). Microbial activity is dependent on soil temperature, and remediation techniques that incorporate organic matter can moderate soil temperatures, thereby influencing biological processes (Aparicio et al., 2022). For instance, biochar supports microbial communities (Hamidzadeh et al., 2023). Similarly, the oxidation reduction potential can also be changed through remediation (Shen et al., 2022). The importance of understanding and manipulating this aspect of plant growth has been demonstrated by Bhattacharjee et al. (2022). Soil bulk density reflects both its compaction and its pore space, and it has been shown that ARP soils have reduced bulk density, thereby promoting root penetration and aeration (Guerin, 2022). However, missteps in remediation can increase bulk density, restricting growth (Piccoli et al., 2022). Improvements in soil water content are crucial in arid regions and have been achieved through organic matter amendments that boost the soil’s water-holding capacity (de Jesus Duarte et al., 2022). Moreover, bulk density changes may influence both soil water composition and oxidation retention potential (Falkenberg et al., 2023), which highlights the importance of a comprehensive understanding of these interactions. Ultimately, the impact of ARP soil on specific physical properties is complex and carries significant implications for environmental protection. Implementing remediation techniques with care and knowledge is essential to maximizing benefits and minimizing unintended consequences (Lama et al., 2020a; Pirone et al., 2022). Although existing research provides strong guidance, further exploration is necessary to fully exploit soil remediation potential across ecological contexts.

The chemical characteristics of ARP are influenced by a wide range of parameters, such as soil pH, organic matter, accessible potassium, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Thorough examination of each of these aspects is crucial (Feng et al., 2022). While pH significantly impacts microbial activity and nutrient availability, it is important to consider the broader implications when applying sulfur or lime compounds to remediate soil. According to Tan et al. (2022), these methods can alter soil pH to benefit crops, but they may also result in intricate interactions within the soil ecosystem that could have long-term negative repercussions. For example, adding lime to acidic soils can increase nutrient availability (Hammerschmitt et al., 2021), but site-specific assessments are necessary to fully comprehend and control these interactions. Similarly, the risk of unforeseen environmental imbalances or a decline in soil biodiversity due to these adjustments must be weighed against the importance of soil organic matter (SOM) in preserving plant nutrition and sustaining soil structure. To ensure that changes in soil pH do not unintentionally compromise the ecological integrity of the soil and that agricultural productivity is harmoniously balanced with environmental conservation, practical approach places a heavy emphasis on long-term monitoring and adaptive management strategies. Researchers have extensively investigated the benefits of organic matter incorporation, demonstrating that it increases cation exchange capacity (Joseph et al., 2021) and water-holding capacity (Lama et al., 2020b; Tuozzo et al., 2022). Similarly, potassium in the soil is essential for plant growth. In addition, remediation techniques that rely on potassium supplementation have been found to significantly increase potassium availability and total potassium, thus supporting diverse physiological processes in plants (Akbar et al., 2023). Furthermore, the systematic addition of specific minerals or organic matter enhances phosphorus availability, which plays an integral role in essential plant functions such as energy exchange (Prasad et al., 2021). Soil fertility is directly related to carbon and nitrogen levels. It is well known that synthetic remediation, especially through organic amendments such as compost or manure, increases total carbon and nitrogen, thereby fostering the growth of microbes and the cycle of nutrients (Li C. et al., 2021; Li X. et al., 2021). Various remediation techniques can also affect total phosphorus, which includes both organic and inorganic forms and has direct impacts on long-term soil fertility (Maharajan et al., 2021).

A balanced and thorough strategy for remediation is essential due to synergistic interactions among soil chemical characteristics, such as the influence of soil pH on the availability of phosphorus and other nutrients (Wang et al., 2019). Understanding the intricate relationships that exist between various soil constituents, nutrients like potassium and nitrogen, and organic matter is crucial, especially in situations where environmental sustainability is a concern (Nisa et al., 2021). Ultimately, the impacts of ARP soils on chemical properties represent relevant and complex areas of study with direct implications for environmental sustainability. Science-based strategies for modifying soil pH, SOM, potassium, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus can enhance soil productivity and soil restoration (Lal, 2004). However, the nuanced interplay between these chemical properties demands a precise, context-specific approach, considering both short-term goals and long-term ecosystem balance. As soil remediation techniques are tailored to specific regions soil types and ecological conditions, continued research and innovation will be essential to harnessing their full potential. Furthermore, ecological services will be maintained. Predicting the evolution of ecosystems critically depends on understanding the complex dynamics of nutrient cycles in riparian soils and how those cycles affect environmental conditions (Padulano et al., 2020). The current investigation focuses on three objectives: Firstly, it illustrates changes in soil physicochemical properties under different riparian ARP types. Secondly, it aims to determine the relationships between soil physical and chemical properties. Lastly, it reveals the influence of soil physical and chemical properties on riparian soil properties under ARP types. Understanding these relationships serves as a vital step in managing and preserving multifaceted interactions within aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. This ensures ecological stability and resilience.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Research area overview

The research was conducted in the Ruxi River Basin, part of Zhongxian County within Chongqing City, China (coordinates 107°32–108°14′E, 30°03–30°35 N). The Ruxi River, which is a tributary of the Yangtze River in TGD, is located in Zhongxian County. Nearby, Shibao Town is situated to the northeast of Zhongxian County, adjacent to the Yangtze River’s north bank (see Figure 1). The climate falls within the subtropical southeast monsoon zone (Arif et al., 2023), with an annual mean temperature of 18.2°C and a contrasting average yearly low of 10°C. The daily illumination stands at 29%, and the total annual illumination is 1327.5 h, while solar radiation measures 3.5 × 10⁵ J·cm⁻². The area receives 1,200 mm of rain annually, maintaining a relative humidity of 80%. The landscape is dominated by calcareous purple soil, characterized by minimal degradation and maturation. However, it is marked by noticeable water movement and soil erosion phenomena.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Location of the study area and sample site within the Three Gorges Dam (TGD) in China.

2.2 Field investigation

The academic research group based in Chongqing started this field study in the riparian area of the TGD in spring 2012. More precisely, this research took place in Shibao Town. This experiment focused on four plant species: Cynodon dactylon, Hemarthria altissima, Taxodium disticum, and Salix matsudana. Although these plants have been inundated for eight consecutive years (e.g., 2012–2020), they have maintained appropriate growth conditions. The research data collected in the study area for this study adopted an intricate sampling regime across three distinct time periods: early spring May 2020 (T1), July 2020 (T2), and September 2020 (T3). Within each of these timeframes, sampling employed two S-shaped transects in the riparian zone to ensure a comprehensive representation of the study area. In each S-shaped transect, three 1 m × 1 m quadrats were randomly placed at a distance of more than 10 meters between each sample. Thereby providing an additional layer of randomization. Within each quadrat, five soil blocks—each measuring 15 cm × 15 cm × 20 cm—were placed in a quincunx pattern.

For all four plant species, 45 samples from the rhizosphere and another 45 from the non-rhizosphere were gathered within the transect, resulting in 90 samples per species. In total, 360 soil samples were collected during the study. This methodical sampling strategy, from the design of the S-shaped transect to the quincunx arrangement of soil blocks, was meticulously crafted to derive scientifically sound conclusions. Such meticulous methodological planning is aimed at fulfilling the high standards of statistical power and reliability expected in scholarly research. Samples were collected at a soil depth of 0 to 20 cm, avoiding any obstructions like stones or roots. Subsequent to their collection, these soil samples were amalgamated for each quadrat and air-dried in a laboratory setting to facilitate subsequent physicochemical analyses.

2.3 Laboratory analysis

As part of the investigation, the quartering technique was diligently applied to the mixed soil sample to finely grind and sieve it in order to remove any visible stones, roots, or remnants of plants. This study examined soil physicochemical properties in detail, including measurements of soil temperature (ST), oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), bulk density (BD), soil water content (SWC), soil pH, SOM, available potassium (AK), whole potassium (WK), total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorous (AP), and total phosphorus (TP).

We employed redox potentiometers to determine ST and ORP, providing insights into the soil’s electrochemical state. Additionally, the oven-drying method was utilized to determine BD and SWC, followed by the volumetric ring knife method after drying samples at 105°C for 24 h until a stable mass was achieved. BD was then calculated by comparing the oven-dried undisturbed core weight ratio to the cutting ring volume, providing information regarding the physical structure of the soil (Muscetta et al., 2023).

The pH of the soil was determined using electrode potentiometry, an essential factor in assessing soil fertility. We used a colorimetric approach to analyze SOM using potassium dichromate. A sensitive method for detecting AK and WK was used to determine the quantities of these elements by inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy. In order to determine the content of TC and TN, we employed an elemental analyzer (Elementar Vario EL, Germany), which is a sophisticated, high-resolution instrument that facilitates accurate measurement. Finally, molybdenum-antimony antichromatic analysis was used to determine the phosphorus content of AP and TP. In addition to their rigorous nature, these methods and procedures demonstrate a thorough and methodical approach to the understanding of the multifaceted soil composition, thereby providing the foundation for future ecological investigations.

2.4 Statistical analysis

An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized to determine whether there were any differences in soil physical and chemical properties. In addition to this method, a two-tailed, unpaired test was used to determine the statistical significance, which permitted a deeper understanding of the underlying variations. The Pearson correlation coefficient, which was calculated using Origin software, provided an analytical perspective on the interactions between the multifaceted physical and chemical characteristics of soil along ARPs. This study used t-tests to discern pairwise differences among various soil chemical properties across distinct vegetation types. These properties encompass a range of metrics, namely PH, SOM, AK, WK, TC, TN, AP, and TP. Such pairwise comparisons are pivotal in understanding how different vegetation types might influence or be influenced by the underlying soil chemistry. The use of t-tests and the subsequent graphical representation via box plots were meticulously designed to offer a comprehensive, yet accessible, overview of soil chemical properties across different vegetation types in the specified region. The inclusion of significance markers further reinforces the academic rigor and validity of the presented findings.

This study used t-tests to discern pairwise differences among various soil chemical properties across distinct vegetation types. These properties encompass a range of metrics, namely PH, SOM, AK, WK, TC, TN, AP, and TP. Such pairwise comparisons are pivotal in understanding how different vegetation types might influence or be influenced by the underlying soil chemistry. The use of t-tests and the subsequent graphical representation via box plots were meticulously designed to offer a comprehensive, yet accessible, overview of soil chemical properties across different vegetation types in the specified region. The inclusion of significance markers further reinforces the academic rigor and validity of the presented findings.

As well, principal component analysis (PCA) was employed with the same analytical tool in order to explore the interrelationships between an array of soil physical and chemical factors along ARPs, including ST, ORP, BD, SWC, soil pH, SOM, AK, WK, TC, TN, AP, and TP. This sophisticated analytical approach provided an extensive understanding of the complex dynamics prevailing within soil composition. This study provides new insights into intricate interactions and correlations that are not only academically valuable, but also have potential practical applications in ecological research, environmental preservation, and strategic land management.

3 Results

3.1 Riparian soil physical properties under different vegetation types

Figure 2 illustrates the physical properties of the soil under different vegetation types using the box plot method. There was a variation in SWC between 17 and 26% (Figure 2D). The ST value was higher in Cynodon dactylon and lower in Hemarthria altissima (Figure 1A). Cynodon dactylon showed the lowest BD, and Salix mastudana showed the highest BD (Figure 2C). It was found that Taxodium disticum had a higher ORP (Figure 2B). Despite this, we found no significant difference between the four vegetation types in terms of physical properties.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Box plots (A–D) of the soil’s physical properties under different vegetation types along the riparian zone of the TGD in China. Abbreviations in the figure define soil temperature (ST), oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), bulk density (BD), and soil water content (SWC).

3.2 Riparian soil chemical properties under different vegetation types

Figure 3 depicts the soil chemical properties using box-normal plots under different vegetation types. AK, TC, TN, and TP were found in high abundance in Taxodium disticum and in lower quantities in Salix mastudana (p < 0.05) (Figures 3C,E,F,H). Salix mastudana had the highest soil pH (p < 0.05), whereas Cynodon dactylon had the lowest (Figure 3A). It was found that Salix mastudana had the lowest SOM and WK (p < 0.05) (Figures 3B,D). Hemarthria altissima had the highest AP content, while the other three vegetations gradually reduced it (Figure 3G).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Box plots (A–H) of the soil’s chemical properties under different vegetation types along the riparian zone of the TGD in China. Abbreviations in the figure define pH values (PH), soil organic matter (SOM), available potassium (AK), whole potassium (WK), total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorous (AP), and total phosphorous (TP). Note: * indicates significant differences at p < 0.01 (**) or p < 0.001 (***) according to the paired t-tests.

3.3 Relationships between riparian soil physical and chemical properties

We performed Pearson correlation coefficient analyses on the different chemical and physical characteristics of the soil using significance levels of p < 0.001***, p < 0.01**, and p < 0.05*. The pH, SOM, AK, and AP in soil were significantly correlated negatively with ST, ORP, and BD in Hemarthria altissima, i.e., (r ≤ −1.00***). Figure 4A illustrates this. There was a significant negative correlation between Cynodon dactylon physical properties (r ≤ −1.00***). This is presented in Figure 4B. Taxodium disticum and Salix mastudana show mixed but strong negative correlations with physical properties (r ≤ −1.00***). Figures 4C,D depict this phenomenon.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Heat maps of Pearson’s correlation coefficient analysis between soil physicochemical properties under different vegetation types [Hemarthria altissima (A), Cynodon dactylon (B), Salix mastudana (C), and Taxodium disticum (D)] along the riparian zones of the TGD in China. ***Correlation is significant at the 0.001 level; **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level. Abbreviations in the figure are defined as pH values (PH), soil organic matter (SOM), available potassium (AK), whole potassium (WK), total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorous (AP), total phosphorous (TP), soil temperature (ST °C), oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), bulk density (BD), and soil water content (SWC).

3.4 Response of riparian soil physical and chemical properties to different vegetation types

PCA was used to determine how riparian soil properties responded to different vegetation types in Figure 5. It can be concluded that axes 1 and 2 of the PCA account for almost 100% of the variance in the data. We found that PC1 of Cynodon dactylon was strongly correlated with soil pH, WK, TP, and SWC. Meanwhile, PC2 exhibits a strong positive association with TN and ST as well as a negative association with SOM (Figure 5A). PC1 of Hemarthria altissima showed a strong positive association with SOM and a negative association with ORP, whereas PC2 showed a strong positive association with AK, WK, and TP (Figure 5B). A strong positive association was observed between PC1 of Taxodium disticum and TC and ST, whereas negative relationships were observed with TP, ORP, and BD. Conversely, PC2 has a stronger positive relationship with WK and TN (Figure 5C). TP and SWC were positively associated with PC1 of Salix mastudana, while TN and ORP were negatively associated. In contrast, PC2 has a stronger positive correlation with AK and BD (Figure 5D).

Figure 5

Figure 5. Principal component analysis of soil physicochemical properties under different vegetation types [Cynodon dactylon (A), Hemarthria altissima (B), Taxodium disticum (C), and Salix mastudana (D)] along the riparian zones of TGD in China. PCA axes 1 and 2-factor loadings explained almost 100% of the total variance. Abbreviations in the figure are defined as pH values (PH), soil organic matter (SOM), available potassium (AK), whole potassium (WK), total carbon (TC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorous (AP), total phosphorous (TP), soil temperature (ST °C), oxidation–reduction potential (ORP), bulk density (BD), and soil water content (SWC).

4 Discussion

ARPs contribute significantly to soil and water resource conservation. Its efficiency depends on vegetation type and density (Siqueira et al., 2021). Studies have shown that dense vegetation intercepts and traps unwanted materials (Opitz et al., 2021). In contrast, areas with less vegetation are more likely to experience erosion (Wu et al., 2020), which occurs when soil is worn away over time. Degradation of soil can lead to a more rapid loss of soil particles, which can have adverse effects on the soil (Liu L. et al., 2020; Liu Y. F. et al., 2020). As we examine specific examples (ARPs), we can observe significant differences in their abilities to maintain soil structure and intercept particulates. Although various types of vegetation can contribute to soil conservation, their structural characteristics may result in varying degrees of effectiveness. The dense growth characteristic of Cynodon dactylon may mean it is more capable of robust interception (Tu et al., 2021). Alternatively, Salix matsudana may have different properties that affect its soil conservation ability. This study shows that nutrient levels, pH, and organic matter content differ significantly among various vegetation types. Previous studies have also explored nutrient variation across soil types (Gao et al., 2023) and the factors underlying these variations (Ghani et al., 2023; Proto and Courtney, 2023). This study contributes to the existing literature by clarifying the relationship between ARPs and soil properties. Vegetation affects soil carbon and nitrogen, but no significant differences were found between the four ARPs (Figure 2). Variability is complex, influenced by many factors including slope, soil texture, and hydrological processes, and is related to soil nutrients’ higher mobility (Alves, 2023). Landscapes adjacent to the sampling site may also influence nutrient content. The results indicate that the interaction between ARPs and soil nutrients is multifaceted and not solely determined by vegetation type (Meng et al., 2023). To accurately assess riparian ARP’s ability to retain nutrients, it is necessary to consider various environmental and site-specific factors.

Potassium availability variation across different soil types has been well documented (Bilias et al., 2023; Doulgeris et al., 2023; Gowthamchand et al., 2023; Yan et al., 2023). Salix mastudana’s soil has the lowest potassium levels available, which is consistent with Wu et al. (2023), who observed a reduced potassium availability in certain soil types. In an attempt to explain such variations in potassium availability, Lee et al. (2011) demonstrated that the soil mineral composition and texture may be responsible. Fernandez et al. (2023) found that specific vegetation can enhance potassium availability in Hemarthria altissima soil, as evidenced by Figure 3G. Various studies have supported this concept, for example those by Hailing et al. (2020), who found that certain soil microbial communities associated with particular plant species may enhance potassium mineralization. In addition, the interaction between plant roots and soil potassium has been the subject of research. This provides insight into how different plants affect soil nutrients. Researchers Rafique et al. (2019) and Zhong et al. (2020) have found that specific root exudates may influence soil potassium availability. Our study aligns with a series of earlier studies (Stumpf et al., 2022; Ye et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023a) that investigated potassium levels in various soil types. Plant species and soil nutrient content are discussed in more detail for four ARPs.

The recent findings regarding the total carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus contents of soil types contribute to an expanding body of knowledge in the field of ecology. Results of our study revealed that the content of TC, TN, and TP was higher in Taxodium disticum and the lowest in Salix mastudana (Figures 3C,E,F,H). The soil pH was highest in Salix mastudana and lowest in Cynodon dactylon (Figure 3A), which supports previous findings and extends our understanding of the complex relationship between vegetation types and soil nutrients. First, the alignment with Liu L. et al. (2020) and Liu Y. F. et al. (2020) further supports the notion that soil nutrients are correlated with vegetation types. Makoto and Koike (2021) have reached similar conclusions, emphasizing the fact that specific vegetation types have a significant impact on nutrient cycles within soil ecosystems. Observations made by Li et al. (2023a,b) indicate that certain tree species may prefer soils rich nutrients as a way of adapting to their niche. Guo et al. (2023) reached similar conclusions by observing that certain trees might enhance soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation. Moreover, studies focusing on mycorrhizal relationships have further elucidated the relationship between soil types and total nutrient content. Landscape ecology has examined the spatial variability of soil nutrients, including carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus (Li C. et al., 2021; Li X. et al., 2021). Long et al. (2022) argue that topography, climate, and human activity can affect these variations. This multifaceted topic is further complicated by vegetation type, as noted in this study. The findings related to total carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in different soil types contribute to our understanding of soil-vegetation interactions. This study provides valuable insights into ecology, agronomy, and land management. It reaffirms the intricate and nuanced relationship between plant species and their environments.

The findings of this study concerning pH variations in soils and their relationship with specific plant species such as Salix mastudana and Cynodon dactylon extend existing knowledge in soil science and plant ecology. Previous research has demonstrated the significance of soil pH in determining plant distribution and growth (Msimbira and Smith, 2020; Kang et al., 2021; Ni et al., 2021). Salix mastudana soil exhibits a greater pH, which is consistent with Han et al. (2022), who conclude that some plants may increase soil alkalinity. Penn and Camberato (2019) highlighted how certain plants may release cations that increase soil pH because of ion exchange at the root surfaces. This phenomenon may be related to the ion exchange process that occurs at the root surface. Conversely, the lower pH found in Cynodon dactylon soil is consistent with Licata et al. (2022) findings. Several grasses, including Cynodon dactylon, thrive in acidic soils. Several researchers have explored the underlying mechanisms of soil pH variation, such as Mokgakane et al. (2021), who suggested that certain grass species might produce organic acids that decrease soil pH. PH fluctuations in soil also have broad ecological implications. Mahohi and Raiesi (2021) emphasized the importance of pH in soil microbial communities, including its impact on nutrient cycling. Additionally, Ni et al. (2020) demonstrate that pH can influence phosphorus and iron availability. It may be concluded that the present study’s observations about pH variation in Salix mastudana and Cynodon dactylon soils agree with those reported in previously mentioned studies. These studies contribute to plant–soil interactions. By emphasizing the importance of plant species in modulating soil pH, these findings underscore the nuanced relationship between soil properties and vegetation. Researchers and practitioners will benefit from these insights in the broader fields.

Additionally, the findings of the current study regarding whole potassium and SOM levels agree with existing research. This illustrates the intricate relationship between ARPs and soil properties. Earlier research by Dang et al. (2021), Hu et al. (2022), Voltr et al. (2021), and Zhang et al. (2021) reinforced the observed relationships, emphasizing that different plant species affect soil potassium and SOM levels differently. Those relationships are integral to understanding soil biogeochemical cycling processes as well as having practical implications for land management (Jakšić et al., 2021). These results emphasize how vegetation influences soil properties and suggest that targeted vegetation management is an effective tool for manipulating soil properties in accordance with ecological objectives (Huylenbroeck et al., 2020). The study adds to the growing body of evidence demonstrating that soil and vegetation are interconnected in ecosystem dynamics. The variations in potassium levels, total nutrients, pH, and organic matter observed are consistent with current scientific understanding and provide nuanced insights into soil-vegetation interactions.

The present study reveals key insights into the relationships that govern soil ecology by analyzing correlations between different chemical and physical characteristics of soil. By using Pearson correlation coefficient analysis at different significance levels, negative correlations have been found within specific vegetation types, supporting existing research on soil–plant interactions (Figure 4). Hemarthria altissima exhibits significant negative correlations between soil pH, SOM, AK, and AP with ST, ORP, and BD, which are consistent with previous studies such as Matos et al. (2021). Several wetland grasses showed similar interactions between these properties, reflecting the plant’s contribution to soil structure and nutrient cycling. The findings regarding Cynodon dactylon, which showed significant negative correlations with physical properties, agree with the findings by Kamchoom et al. (2022). It has been demonstrated that grass species such as Cynodon dactylon alter soil physical properties such as compaction, porosity, and bulk density. Salix mastudana and Taxodium disticum exhibit mixed but strong negative correlations with physical properties during their growth cycles. This is consistent with a broader understanding of how tree species impact soil attributes. Yang et al. (2023) demonstrated that certain tree species, especially in riparian zones, influence soil physical properties, influencing processes such as erosion and sedimentation. Several studies have concluded that Pearson correlation coefficient analysis is one of the most used methods for understanding complex relationships within environmental sciences, as outlined by Kumar and Chong (2018). Previous studies have demonstrated its utility in uncovering intricate relationships between various soil properties, including those conducted by Rendana et al. (2018).

The use of PCA to investigate the response of riparian soil properties to different vegetation types, as explored in this study (Figure 5), offers an insightful methodological approach to understanding the multidimensional nature of soil attributes. The association between principal components and soil properties under different vegetation types can be viewed within the context of previous literature. The strong positive association between PC1 and soil pH, WK, TP, and SWC of Cynodon dactylon supports our understanding of how certain grasses affect soil properties. It has been reported by Gao et al. (2020) that grass species alter the SWC and nutrient distribution, including phosphorus (TP). Hemarthria altissima was found to have associations with SOM, similar to previous studies like Fernandez et al. (2023). Several ecological studies have demonstrated that specific plant types are associated with nutrient cycling and organic matter dynamics in the soil (Odoh et al., 2020). Similarly, researchers such as Lamarque et al. (2023) have also observed relationships between TP, SWC, TN, and ORP for Salix mastudana. Salix species play a significant role in soil hydrology and nutrient dynamics. Additionally, methodological studies such as Abdel-Fattah et al. (2021) have emphasized PCA as a powerful tool for unraveling complex, multidimensional data. The effectiveness of this approach has also been demonstrated by Rangel-Peraza et al. (2017) in ecology and soil science.

5 Conclusion

This research offers profound insights that require further exploration. Through the examination of four varieties of ARPs, substantial changes in soil physicochemical parameters have been identified. Among these, Taxodium disticum’s soil exhibited higher levels of critical nutrients. This study unraveled the intricate relationship between different ARPs and soil’s chemical properties through PCA. This accounted for almost 100% of the variance. Their correlations provide foundational information but reveal complexity in their interactions. In this regard, significant negative correlations with physical properties (p < 0.05) also indicate that there may be underlying mechanisms or factors not yet fully understood. This research has implications beyond the study areas for similar ecosystems worldwide. The importance of understanding and mediating the effects of urbanization and industrialization on biodiversity and biogeochemical processes cannot be overstated, as these factors continue to pressure riparian environments. Future research should consider a comprehensive study of ARPs’ effects on different soil types, employing longitudinal studies and diverse methods. Additionally, it is worthwhile to consider the possible negative impacts or unintended consequences of ARPs. These include disruptions to native ecosystems, changes in soil chemistry, or potential adverse effects on fauna in the surrounding area. Overall, this study provided valuable insights into the interaction between ARPs and riparian soils. However, it also exposes areas where our understanding is still evolving. The development of sustainable practices in land management and ecological restoration will undoubtedly benefit from a deeper, more comprehensive exploration of these interactions, which will ensure the preservation and revitalization of these crucial ecosystems.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

FN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft. MA: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. TX: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. CL: Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This study was supported by Foreign Young Talent Program (Program number: QN2022168001L); Chongqing Housing and Urban-rural Construction Committee (Program number: Chengkezi-2022-6-3); Chongqing Municipality Key Forestry Research Project (2021-9); and Forestry Extension Project of China Central Finance (No. Yulinketui 2023-8).

Acknowledgments

Special thanks are extended to the TGD management unit representatives for their assistance during the entire research process. We are also grateful to Dr. Songlin Zhang and Dr. Zhongxun Yuan for their field support during data collection.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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