Land degradation in Uzbekistan: key challenges and sustainable solutions

Land degradation poses significant challenges to food security, biodiversity and ecosystem sustainability, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions like Uzbekistan. Modern agriculture with advanced science-driven innovations such as conservation agriculture (CA), digital technology and nanotechnology offer viable solutions to mitigate soil degradation, enhance resource efficiency, and promote sustainable agricultural systems. CA operating on three core principles, is effective in reducing land degradation and enhancing overall soil fertility. Digital technology employs AI-driven data analytics, advanced irrigation techniques, and soil monitoring systems to optimize farming efficiency, while nanotechnology contributes to improved plant nutrient uptake, reduced fertilizer losses, and enhanced soil health. The study employed remote sensing and GIS techniques, integrating Landsat data, soil metrics, and climate records to analyze land degradation through NDVI trends, land use dynamics, and statistical correlations. It turned out that more than 50 percent of the land of the Republic of Uzbekistan was degraded and soil humus content across the region declined by 1.3–1.5 times between 1990 and 2020. Furthermore, soil salinity increased considerably in several areas: in Jizzakh from 30.6 to 63.6%; in Namangan from 18.9 to 35.1%; in Ferghana from 13 to 45.1% during this period. These alarming indicators are intended for the region to set necessary restoration measures and adequate metrics to reduce the extent of land degradation. The integration of remote sensing technologies and vegetation index data enables quantitative assessments of soil degradation, facilitating evidence-based land management strategies. Furthermore, implementing sustainable land management (SLM) approaches, such as agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and water saving technologies enhance soil resilience, and carbon sequestration, thereby mitigating the negative effects of climate change. Although innovative agricultural technologies have immense potential for upgrading farming practices, challenges remain in their large-scale implementation, long-term environmental sustainability, governance, and farmer adoption. Addressing these challenges necessitates comprehensive policy frameworks, effective governance, financial incentives, and capacity-building programs for rural communities. Therefore, this study underscores the urgent need for integrated, climate-smart agricultural approaches to restore degraded lands, enhance soil productivity, and foster a sustainable, resilient food system in Uzbekistan.

Introduction

Land degradation became the most challenging issues in Central Asia, especially for Uzbekistan, threatening agricultural potential and posing severe constraints on food security (Khazieva et al., 2023). This growing problem is a complex and urgent global concern, with significant impacts on ecological stability, biodiversity, and human livelihoods (Babakholov and Hasanov, 2024). Human-induced factors, such as deforestation, overgrazing, and unsustainable agricultural practices, are the main reasons of intensive land degradation, leading to serious damage to ecosystem services (Lahlaoi et al., 2017). Most of the world’s population is already facing tremendous risks due to the negative effects of land degradation, including altered rainfall patterns, exacerbated extreme weather events, and contributions to climate change. Long-term climate change analyses indicate that land degradation is one of the main drivers of environmental crises, with serious social and economic consequences (Sewando et al., 2023).

There are multiple interconnected drivers of land degradation, including both natural and human factors. One major contributor is climate change, which leads to soil erosion, desertification, and loss of vegetation cover by altering precipitation patterns, increasing temperatures, and intensifying extreme weather events (Nurbekov et al., 2023). Understanding these regional variations is crucial for designing targeted interventions that address specific causes of degradation in different environments (Nurbekov et al., 2012). On the other hand human activities, such as deforestation, overgrazing, and agricultural expansion, further accelerate land degradation by disturbing natural ecosystems and depleting soil resources (Rustamova et al., 2023). These factors contribute to a vicious cycle, where climate change exacerbates land degradation, which in turn worsens climate change. According to estimates, there would be significant harm to the sustainability of the natural resources and financial outlays for the restoration of the degraded area, whereas it would be far more sensible to avoid or lessen the burden (Babakholov et al., 2022).

The socio-economic consequences of land degradation are severe, leading to food insecurity, poverty, conflict, and migration, as competition for limited land resources intensifies (UN-Habitat-GLTN, 2016). This process also triggers environmental, economic, and political instability, further worsening poverty and social unrest, leading to unreversible consequences (Hossain et al., 2020; Arneth et al., 2021; Giri, 2021). The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) defines land degradation as an extremely complex issue, as it involves the loss of biological and economic productivity of land. Currently, land degradation is considered one of the most pressing global environmental concerns, particularly in arid, semi-arid, and dry subhumid zones, where desertification is a growing threat (Minelli et al., 2017). According to the FAO’s global assessment, 2 billion hectares of land, 33% of the world’s land resources, are either highly or moderately degraded. An estimated 2.6 billion people across more than 100 countries are affected by land degradation and desertification (FAO, 2024a,b). Approximately, 73% of rangelands in dryland areas have already been degraded along with 47% of marginal rainfed croplands are experiencing soil degradation. A significant proportion of irrigated croplands is also being affected. The degradation of land resources has reached catastrophic levels in many parts of the world, making rural populations increasingly vulnerable (Strikeleva et al., 2018).

Uzbekistan is already experiencing severe challenges related to soil degradation. The predominant types of land degradation in this area include soil salinization, increased gypsum content in soils, reduced soil fertility, water and wind erosion, increased soil compaction and dehumification. Water scarcity, loss of biodiversity, greenhouse gas emissions and climate change are becoming critical issues that affect the functionality of the agricultural system. The intensification of land use, combined with unsustainable agronomic practices, has led to significant drawbacks in soil protection. Degradation is already mostly caused by specific processes including grazing, soil erosion, and deforestation that put food security in the region at risk (Karimov et al., 2025). As a consequence, ecosystem services such as soil fertility, crop production and genetic resources were seriously affected.

In the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya deltas, ecosystem functions are rapidly deteriorating, where land becoming increasingly salinized and decertified. Salt, dust, and pesticide residues from the former Aral Sea are being carried by the wind, further degrading adjacent farmlands. The water imbalance continues to worsen due to rising consumption, desertification, and climate change effects. Increased soil erosion further depletes soil fertility, reducing crop productivity and accelerating land degradation over large geographical areas (Khaitov et al., 2022).

Therefore, this study focuses on examining changes in land use, agricultural productivity, and soil salinity over time, as well as their impact on soil degradation in Uzbekistan. This review-oriented study employed remote sensing and GIS methodologies, integrating Landsat imagery, soil parameters, and climatic data to evaluate land degradation through NDVI trends, land use changes, and statistical relationships sourced from government agencies.

Land degradation problem in Uzbekistan and its scale

Uzbekistan located in an arid region with a total land area of 44.7 million hectares. The main part of the territory is occupied by natural pastures −46.8% and forest lands 8%, while urban and infrastructure areas account for 34.5%. Arable land makes up only 4.3 million hectares (approximately 10% of the total land area), with 3.3 million hectares dedicated to irrigated agriculture (Table 1).

Table 1

Table 1. Land use in Uzbekistan.

A large portion of the region is increasingly affected by land degradation and desertification, leading a persistent decline in ecosystem functions and services. Strong soil compaction and crust formation (more than 50% of the country’s irrigated land), wind erosion of soils (56% of all lands), irrigation erosion (covering 7,603 sq. km of land), soil salinization (47% of the irrigated area), and low organic matter in soils are among the land degradation issues in Uzbekistan (Eshmatov, 2024). Due to inappropriate pasture grazing, other anthropogenic influences, and climate change, approximately 83% of the total area of pasturelands and hayfields is experiencing desertification and soil degradation (Ruzmetov, 2021).

According to the statistics, every year 477 thousand tons (9.15%) of forage from natural pastures and 63.8 thousand tons of biomass from forests and shrubs (0.04% of total stock) are lost due to degradation (FAO, 2024a,b, RECSOIL project). Furthermore, the country is losing at least 18.2 billion cubic meters of water (39.5% of the total supply (46.1 billion cubic meters of water) due to poorly maintained infrastructure (e.g., pipes, canals, reservoirs) and inefficient irrigation practices (these data provided by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Uzbekistan). These inefficiencies not only strain water resources but also undermine agricultural productivity and long-term sustainability. In addition to these losses, the nation is experiencing various negative effects linked to the deterioration of natural capital in agriculture, forestry, and water, such as health issues, infrastructure damage, harsh weather, salinity in water and soil, and abandoned farmlands.

Soil degradation in Uzbekistan has reached critical levels with pervasive salinization and ecological degradation, which have critically impaired key soil functions (Figure 1). Currently, 30% of Uzbekistan’s territory is affected by land degradation, posing serious threats to food security, environmental sustainability, and economic stability. This issue is a major barrier to agricultural development, as it depletes natural resources and exacerbates socio-economic challenges.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Land degradation trends in Uzbekistan for the period 2010–2020 prepared using the Trends. Earth tool. Source of data: Soil and Agrochemical Research Institute, Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

In the case of irrigated areas, land degradation in Uzbekistan deteriorated 23.13% (94,834.90 ha) of arable land, negatively affecting food and nutritional security. This decline is linked to fragile agroecosystem, extensive agricultural use, and factors like soil quality, population density, and land use practices (Mirzabaev et al., 2023). Land degradation is exacerbated by drought, desertification, and mismanagement of soil and water resources, all of which threaten sustainable development. Soil salinization, sand and dust storms, deforestation, overgrazing, and unsustainable farming practices remain the biggest threats to natural resources, seriously hampering economic and social development.

In recent years, Uzbekistan has reduced cotton cultivation while increasing wheat production to strengthen food security. Strategic crops such as cereals, cotton, and fruits occupy 41%, 28%, and 12%, respectively, of the total cultivated land (Table 2). However, agricultural productivity continues to decline due to soil degradation and resource mismanagement.

Table 2

Table 2. Severity of land degradation in croplands of Uzbekistan.

The causes of land degradation are complex and varied, depending on regional geography and terrain characteristics. Natural soil salinization and environmental degradation have long affected the arid and semi-arid ecosystems of the country, significantly reducing the soil’s ability to function as a buffer and filter and disrupting key ecological processes, including the nitrogen cycle, hydrological balance, habitat stability, and biodiversity support.

This dryland region is highly vulnerable to degradation due to scarce vegetation cover and fragile soil structures, making them particularly susceptible to external disturbances such as climate change, overgrazing, and unsustainable land use practices. Without effective land management strategies, these ecosystems face a continued decline, threatening agricultural productivity and environmental stability.

In the past, various efforts have been made to enhance production technologies, improve agricultural practices, and increase crop yields to ensure food security. However, the growing demand to feed, a rapidly expanding population in an arid and increasingly unpredictable climate has placed immense pressure on natural resources, including pastures, forests, land, and water. The sustainability of agricultural production is now under serious threat due to these escalating demands and human-induced degradation. Irrigated lands, which play a critical role in Uzbekistan’s agriculture, are becoming increasingly vulnerable to depletion and deterioration. Given the severity and scale of land degradation, immediate restoration actions are needed to prevent irreversible damage. Estimates suggest that restoring degraded lands would require substantial financial investments, posing significant challenges to long-term sustainability (Nurbekov et al., 2024). However, preventive measures and SLM strategies would be far more cost-effective than restoring already degraded areas. Addressing these issues proactively is crucial to ensuring food security, protecting natural resources, and maintaining ecological balance.

Types and origin of land degradation

Land use types can result in distinct types of land degradation. Land degradation may occur in different forms on various land use types:

On cropland: physical soil degradation from compaction, sealing, and crusting; biological degradation from lack of vegetation cover, decline of local crop varieties, and mixed cropping systems; soil erosion from wind and water; chemical degradation (e.g., fertility decline) from soil salinization and nutrient depletion; and water degradation primarily from increased surface runoff (polluting surface water), changing water availability, and high evaporation leading to aridification on cropland.

On grazing land: biological deterioration, including the loss of valuable species and vegetative cover; the rise of invasive and “undesirable” species. The effects on erosion, water runoff, and soil physical deterioration are extensive and serious. One of the biggest challenges to SLM is the widespread low productivity and ecosystem services caused by degraded grazing areas.

On forest land: deforestation causes biological degradation; logging removes valuable species; monocrop plantations or other land uses replace natural forests, resulting in negative effects on biodiversity; and soil and water degradation.

In terms of soil degradation and depletion, the following issues remain in high priority:

Desertification is emerging as a serious challenge in dryland regions such as Uzbekistan, driven by frequent droughts, overgrazing in foothill areas, deforestation, and inadequate land management practices. The assessment’s foundation and execution depend heavily on the definition and mapping of various land-use systems.

According to the study, the country’s desertification, land degradation and drought affected area is 127,117 sq. km, or 28.6% of its total land area (Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2025). This region consists of 20,640 sq. km of irrigated land (salinization, erosion) and 106,477 sq. km of drylands (problems with overgrazing and deforestation). Furthermore, nearly 4% of the land (around 1.8 mln ha) is part of the Aral Seabed, whose severe desiccation has triggered intense desertification processes and resulted in the creation of the new Aralkum desert on the dried seabed (FAO, 2023a,b).

Risk factors leading to land degradation can be categorized into the following groups:

(1) soil salinity; (2) soil erosion from tillage and wind; (3) unsustainable irrigation practices; (4) overgrazing and erosion of pasture lands.

Soil salinity

Compared to other types of degradation, soil salinization was arguably the most severe in Uzbekistan. According to the assessment, there are 21.507 million hectares of salt-affected soils in Uzbekistan (Table 3). About 10 million hectares of this total have a high level of soil salinization in the 100–200 cm soil profile. The extent of soil salinity between 1990 and 2010 increased from 43.5 to 56.1% in irrigated lands of the country (Table 3). Most affected regions were Karakalpakstan (79.1%), Sirdarya (82.3), Bukhara (75.1%), and Jizzakh (72.1%). The situation changed to the better following undertaken actions in the next decades, exhibiting a decrease of saline lands up to 47.5% in 2010. Despite land condition has improved in some regions, increasing trend of saline lands was observed in Jizzakh (30.6% in 1990 versus 63.6% in 2020), in Namangan (18.9% in 1990 versus 35.1% in 2020), in Ferghana (13% in 1990 versus 45.1% in 2020). These indicators are intended for the region to set necessary measures and adequate metrics to reduce the extent of soil salinity.

Table 3

Table 3. Extent of soil salinity in Uzbekistan.

The preservation of relict salt accumulation in eluvial accumulative landscapes and present salt accumulation in hydromorphic settings has been conditioned by an arid climate, which characterizes the region’s contemporary bioclimatic parameters. Soluble salts migrated and accumulated in the soil root zone as a result of the development of large-scale irrigation in low-slope environments with very challenging groundwater outflow. According to signs of the salt process, Uzbekistan’s landscapes can be divided into two categories: (i) landscapes with residual soil salinity, and (ii) landscapes that have recently experienced hydrogenic salt buildup. Using geographic information system/remote sensing and national monitoring data on the salinization of irrigated areas, regional natural and ameliorative maps, and a soil map of the Aral Sea coastal area, a vector soil salinity map has been created using the LADA approach. The map shows the depth and thickness of the salt horizon as well as the degree and extent of salinization in the soil profile on levels ranging from 0 to 30 cm, 30 to 100 cm, and 100 to 200 cm. These soils are mostly found downstream and in the middle of the Amudarya and Syrdarya Rivers (FAO, 2021).

Soil erosion

The Amu-Darya River Delta and the drying Aral Sea are stark symbols of the region’s environmental crisis. Water and wind erosion of irrigated lands and secondary soil salinization pose the nation’s biggest environmental risks. The majority of the irrigated land area is found to be affected by different types of soil erosion in these semi-arid and desert regions. When there is inadequate drainage and a high groundwater table, secondary salinization takes place. Salt buildup in the rooting zone and a sharp increase in the groundwater table are caused by excessive irrigation and significant water loss from canals and irrigated areas. According to the data, Uzbekistan has seen a decline in soil salinization and waterlogging processes since 2000.

Soil organic matter

Due to the limited amount of organic matter in the topsoil, dryland soils are often prone to intense mineral weathering, wind and water erosion, and low fertility. Excessive overgrazing is concerning because it results in inadequate coverage, decreased vegetation restoration, and grass cover loss. Compaction, surface layer and structural damage from wind erosion, increased surface runoff, and decreased interflow all affect the soil.

The foundation of healthy soil structure and water-holding ability is soil organic matter (SOM), which also gives soil organisms a place to live by binding soil particles. All of the basic plant nutrients are present in SOM, a revolving nutrient fund that aids in absorbing and retaining nutrients in a form that plants can use. The predominant soil types in Uzbekistan are semi-desert and desert soils, which are characterized by low soil organic matter content (less than 1 percent) and were created under extremely dry conditions. Currently, the amount of humus in the top layer (0–60 cm) ranges from 0.65–0.95% in old irrigated land, 1.25–1.60% on meadow soils, and 0.5–0.8% on light and typical serozems. The overall assessment shows that compared to 1990, this soil humus content became 1.3–1.5 times less (Table 4).

Table 4

Table 4. Change of humus content in irrigated lands of Uzbekistan.

Karakalpakstan, Navoiy, Bukhara, and Khorazm provinces are among those with low levels of soil humus content, exhibiting the worst land degradation stages. In addition, land degradation is responsible for the annual loss of at least 194 million tons of soil in Uzbekistan, i.e., 4.32 tons/ha or 0.1% of the total soil stock assuming 4,500 tons per hectare of land which is linked to the emission of at least 1.6 million tons of carbon into the atmosphere.

Long-term intensive cotton monoculture, a small percentage of alfalfa and legumes in crop rotation, and sparse manure application all contribute to a decrease in soil humus. Extremely extensive rangeland grazing, reliance on dwindling freshwater supplies, and unlawful vegetation cutting for firewood are some of the severe conditions that have led to increased pressure on natural resources.

Estimates of ecosystem services lost in pasturelands

Land degradation in pasturelands is costing Uzbekistan 477,429 tons of forage (hay), or 9.15% of the country’s current supply, based on the same conservative estimates of only 10% yield loss between pasture lands with low and moderate degradation and between moderate and severe degradation (and thus no yield loss in pasture lands with low degradation). Among the provinces with the largest pasture lands are Navoiy, Karakalpakstan, and Kashkadarya, where the greatest loss occurs.

However, in terms of relative yield losses per unit area, Samarkhand, Tashkent, and Sirdaryo are in descending order (Table 5). Furthermore, according to our estimations, 84.4 million tons of soils are lost annually from all grazing areas in Uzbekistan due to wind and water erosion. This amount of soil erosion also contributes significantly to global warming since it releases 642.7 thousand tons of carbon into the atmosphere, which is equal to emissions from 5.6 million barrels of diesel.

Table 5

Table 5. Changes in main agricultural commodities in Uzbekistan, 1992–2020.

The problems regarding land degradation, decertification, extensive afforestation and soil salinity around croplands should be fixed by the national action programmes to combat desertification and/or mitigate the effects of drought.

Possible solutions

Government actions

The Uzbek government issued a number of ordinances to address the growing problem of soil degradation. Recent developments in Uzbekistan’s legal system demonstrate how seriously the government takes the preservation of biodiversity and land degradation. In particular, the 10 June 2022 Presidential Decree No PP-277, “On Measures to Establish an Effective System to Combat Land Degradation” and “On development of monitoring, evaluation and reporting forms for measures to combat land degradation” issued in 2023 offered a solid legal foundation for tackling environmental and land restoration issues. A new Land Degradation Department was established under the Ministry of Agriculture as a result of the aforementioned Decree. In addition, the Ministry of Agriculture has been given extra responsibilities pertaining to the battle against land degradation. Additionally, the government started creating the “Road Map” in order to combat desertification and drought in the Republic for 2024–2028 [Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Uzbekistan (MoA), 2025].

The Decree “On measures to protect pastures and their groundwater and fight against pasture degradation” was officially accepted by the Uzbek Cabinet of Ministers on March 12, 2024. According to the decree, the legislative foundation for more sustainable rangeland management will be strengthened, pastures will be better classified and mapped, rotational grazing will be introduced to lessen the strain of livestock on pastures, the pasture seeding base will be developed, international finance institutions funding will be raised to fight desertification and pasture degradation, and groundwater resources in rangelands will be managed more sustainably (Abduvalievich, 2025).

Through sustainable soil, land, and water management, crop diversification, and the use of drought- and salt-tolerant crops to support local production, the Uzbek government has taken steps to modernize the agricultural sector and assist agricultural communities in reducing the effects of land degradation. However, there is a need to improve informed decision-making procedures and expand SLM. It might be difficult to assist the development of evidence-based strategies at the national level by using a decision-support system and the right tools, as well as to mainstream SLM into national and/or subnational agricultural plans, policies, and programs. In 2014, Uzbekistan joined the multi-country project “Decision Support for Mainstreaming and Scaling up of Sustainable Land Management (DS-SLM),” which was funded by the Global Environment Facility. The project’s goals were to combat land degradation and adopt a framework for decision support (DSF) in order to up- and out-scale SLM best practices. To facilitate soil carbon assessment in Uzbekistan, country-specific Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) maps at a 1 km GRID resolution were developed as part of the global FAO GSP initiative, in collaboration with the World Soil Information Center (ISRIC).

Uzbekistan and neighboring Kazakhstan account for about 6 million hectares of the dried bed of the Aral Sea. On the Uzbekistan’s side, it is 3.2 mln. Hectares, of which 2.5 mln. Are allocated for forest plantations. For several years now, saxaul and other sand-retaining plants have been planted there using a special technology, without which the plants would not survive in the desert area, where only 90 millimeters of precipitation falls per year. The national program in the Aral Sea region started in 2017. By the end of 2024, the planted forest area has already exceeded 1.7 mln. Hectares. Saxaul, tamarisk and other salt-resistant plants prevent the release of harmful salts and dust into the air, draw excess salt from the soil, making it suitable for use by farmers (United Nations, 2021).

The Forestry Agency of Uzbekistan is actively implementing state programs to green the country. One of the key projects is the nationwide initiative “Yashil Makon” (Green Environment), launched in 2021 and aimed at increasing the share of green areas to 30% by 2030, currently the figure is 12%. Within the framework of this program, it is planned to plant 200 million trees and shrubs annually and reach 1 billion trees and shrubs planted over the next 5 years.

According to the Forestry Agency under Ministry of Ecology, Environmental Protection and Climate Change of the Republic of Uzbekistan (2025), as a result of measures aimed at creating new forests, protecting, preserving and nurturing existing forests, the area covered by forests in the republic amounted to 3,650 thousand hectares, and the level of forest cover reached 8.1%. In order to stabilize the ecological situation in the republic, measures were taken to create and restore forests on 220 thousand hectares of land. The main part of this afforestation work falls on desert areas. In particular, in order to prevent sand drift and salt and dust emissions into the atmosphere in the dry Aral Sea and the Aral Sea coast, “green covers” were created on a total area of 215 thousand hectares, including 112 thousand 500 hectares in the Muynak district of the Republic of Karakalpakstan, 41 thousand hectares in the Olot district of the Bukhara region, 51 thousand 300 hectares in the Tomdi and Uchkuduk districts of the Navoi region, and 10 thousand hectares in the Tuprokkala district of the Khorezm region.

By the end of 2024, 5,875 ha were afforested by the Forestry Agency, and the Ministry of Agriculture reclaimed 13,107 ha, supported water-saving technologies, and dairy value chains in Bukhara and Navoiy provinces, contributing 46% co-financing to the FAO LDN project in 2023.

Policy changes

Studying the dynamics of land degradation is crucial to pursue counter measures in respect of policy regulations, monitoring and assessment. Quantitative evaluations of land degradation patterns over time have been made possible by remote sensing technology, such as satellite photography and vegetation index data. Researchers and policymakers may monitor changes in primary productivity, soil organic carbon levels, and land cover—all important markers of land health with the help of these instruments.

Natural resource depletion may soon pick up speed in Uzbekistan due to a number of factors, including population expansion, industrialization, and the recent emphasis on export-oriented horticulture. In the upcoming years, climate change will also make water shortages worse. In light of these concerns, Uzbekistan’s national strategy, as outlined in the Uzbekistan 2030 Strategy, highlights the urgent need for a sustainable transformation toward a green economy, especially with regard to sustainable farming methods. Uzbekistan joined the UNCCD’s LDN Target Setting Programme in 2015, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 15.3) to achieve LDN by 2030. The country has developed national LDN targets and indicators, integrating them into its legislative and policy frameworks.

Land degradation in the various biomes can be controlled by institutional and policy interventions. The Ministry of Agriculture has prioritized 6.6 million ha (23% of total land area) for adjustments, of which 3.3 million ha are crop lands, 2.7 million ha are pasturelands, and 541 thousand ha are forest lands. This decision was made after taking into account a number of factors, such as the degree of land degradation, the adoption of the suggested technologies and innovations, and the country’s financial, human, and institutional capacity to implement the changes (Table 1). As a result, all of the cost-benefit analyses for investments, costs of inaction, and benefits of action estimates only apply to the 6.6 million hectares of land that have been given priority for intervention [Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Uzbekistan (MoA), 2025].

Increasing the nation’s ability to provide effective systems for rural advising, agricultural extension, input, and credit services; motivating and rewarding the private sector to produce necessary equipment and offer these services. A total of 6.7 million hectares of land (3.3, 2.8, and 0.5 million hectares of crop, pasture, and forest lands, respectively) were prioritized for investment based on a set of criteria that took into account the amount of land available in each province under each crop/biome, the suitability of suggested adaptation technologies, the current adoption levels, and other socioeconomic factors.

According to the estimates, Uzbekistan could produce an extra 5.7 million tons of food and non-food crops (including cotton), or 15.2% of current production in a single season, 11.1 million tons of forest and shrub biomass, or 6.7% of total stock, and 907 thousand tons of forage, or 17% of current production, if it made the suggested changes in the areas that are prioritized for investment. The suggested adjustments would also stop the erosion of 106 million tons of soil (which accounts for 55% of the predicted erosion level under inaction) and the loss of 9.1 billion cubic meters of water (19.7% of the entire present supply), which will result in the emission of 858 thousand tons of carbon [Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Uzbekistan (MoA), 2025]. Together, the interventions will save 285 thousand tons of carbon emissions by saving 330 thousand tons of gasoline from fewer tillage operations, 455 gw of power from pumping irrigation water, and 174 gw of electricity from conditioning greenhouses.

It will take a broad array of institutional, technological, and governmental solutions to address these issues. In order to help the nation control land degradation, this paper estimates the costs of degradation in terms of ecosystem services lost as a result of inaction and offers suggestions for the best institutional, regulatory, and technological solutions. The operational objectives include advocacy and education, creating environments for combating desertification and drought, promoting science, technology, and knowledge, building capacity, and facilitating technology transfer. Furthermore, the implementation of successful, context-specific, and SLM policies depends on encouraging cooperation among stakeholders, including governments, non-governmental organizations, and local people.

Sustainable land management

Land degradation jeopardizes the basic needs of food security, income and livelihood opportunities in Uzbekistan. This issue is caused by environmental pollution, exhaustion, and the overuse of natural resources that are too challenging to be restored. Land degradation contributes to climate change by emitting greenhouse gases (GHGs) which necessitate implementing of SLM practices. Moreover, sand and dust storms are becoming frequent in the region, while negatively influencing agriculture, human health, industry, transportation, and water/air quality.

In the area of SLM, Uzbekistan has accumulated a great deal of experience. To facilitate the scaling-out of SLM practices related to water conservation, drought mitigation, and climate-smart solutions in the various agroclimatic regions of the nation, government policy aims to expand innovative approaches and technologies, investment flow, and institutional transformations (Jiang et al., 2022). Numerous case studies, projects, and training programs are available to help mainstream and scale out SLM and climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices in the county’s and other regions’ degraded and drought-prone landscapes.

In recent years, laser land leveling successfully implemented in water scares parts of the region to avoid illogical irrigation that causes water erosion, secondary salinization, and waterlogging. To combat pasture deterioration, more sensible rangeland management techniques should be implemented, such as rotating animal grazing. Crop rotation programs and conservation agriculture must be widely implemented in order to improve soil carbon stocks and soil organic matter.

Precision agriculture, hydroponics, aquaponics, vertical farming, and nanotechnology applications are some of the new technologies that are crucial to developing more climate-resilient and sustainable food systems.

Due to its complexity, land degradation requires both the creation of efficient management plans and a thorough grasp of its forms, causes, and effects. Land degradation can be divided into several categories according to the land use, such as cultivated land, urban land, forest land, grassland, and wetland degradation. Every category has different problems and calls for different strategies for mitigation and recovery. For example, cultivated land degradation is mostly caused by unsustainable agricultural practices that deplete soil nutrients and degrade soil structure, whereas urban land degradation is frequently caused by rapid urbanization and industrialization, which results in soil sealing and the loss of green spaces (Zhu et al., 2020).

Conservation agriculture

CA is one of the most promising land use approaches developed in recent times. Rather than a single technology, it represents a flexible set of practices aimed at minimizing soil disturbance and reducing water and nutrient losses, while preserving many of the ecological functions that natural soils provide within ecosystems. Its emphasis on sustainability, long-term productivity, and environmental stewardship makes it a key pathway for addressing the challenges of modern agriculture, particularly in the face of land degradation and climate change.

CA is built upon three foundational principles that work synergistically to enhance soil health, improve resource efficiency, and ensure long-term agricultural sustainability.

The first principle is direct seeding with minimal disturbance of the soil. This involves reducing or eliminating mechanical tillage, which helps maintain soil structure, preserve organic matter, and support the biological activity which is essential for nutrient cycling and soil fertility. Healthy, undisturbed soils form the basis of resilient and productive farming systems.

The second principle is the maintenance of permanent soil cover. This is achieved by keeping the soil continuously protected with crop residues or growing cover crops. Such residue retention helps to reduce water evaporation, moderate soil temperatures, suppress weed growth and numbers, and prevent erosion caused by wind and water. Moreover, it shields the soil from the damaging effects of extreme weather which can address climate change challenges in Uzbekistan.

The third principle is the diversification of crops, both in time through rotations and in space through intercropping or other diversified planting arrangements. Crop diversity disrupts pest and disease cycles, improves nutrient use efficiency, and improves soil fertility through soil biodiversity enhance, all of which contribute to a more stable and productive agroecosystem. Together, these principles form the core of conservation agriculture—a systems-based approach that not only improves agricultural productivity but also restores and protects the natural resource base on which farming depends.

Area under NoTill is about 30.000 ha which is mostly can be found in the rainfed areas while around 1,000 ha in the irrigated agriculture [Nurbekov et al., 2022; Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Uzbekistan (MoA), 2025]. Uzbekistan’s agricultural landscape is undergoing a significant transformation, with a growing focus on integrating CA practices. The Ministry of Agriculture reports that 650,000 hectares (Nurbekov et al., 2022) of wheat are now being broadcast into standing cotton, a testament to the promising results of long-term research in CA. For over two decades, Uzbekistan has actively researched methods to introduce grain crops into its traditional cotton and alfalfa crop rotations (Nurbekov et al., 2022). Historically, only cotton or winter wheat dominated these rotations.

These initiatives have successfully demonstrated effective management techniques for the rehabilitation and improvement of salt-affected and gypsiferous irrigated lands, directly contributing to enhanced food security within the country. The comprehensive studies and guidelines produced through these collaborations serve as invaluable reference materials for ongoing and future agricultural development assistance. Specifically, CA technologies have undergone rigorous testing across various regions, including the Republic of Karakalpakstan and the provinces of Kashkadarya Khorezm, Bukhara, Sirdarya, Surkhandarya, Jizzakh, Fergana, and Tashkent. The results consistently show that these technologies are both technically viable and economically beneficial for local conditions. They have proven capable of delivering similar or even higher crop yields while simultaneously achieving substantial savings in critical resources and costs, including fuel, seeds, and labor. Moreover, by lowering fuel consumption, CA contributes to improving the carbon footprint of farming practices, thereby enhancing the overall environmental sustainability of land use.

Precision agriculture

Precision agriculture enhances farming efficiency by leveraging data on soil and water variability to optimize practices such as seed planting, fertilizer application, and irrigation management. It complements a range of sustainable approaches such as organic farming, multiple cropping, permaculture, agroforestry, and conservation agriculture collectively contributing to more resilient and resource-efficient food production systems.

Sustainable food system is a food system that delivers food security and nutrition for all in such a way that the economic, social and environmental bases to generate food security and nutrition for future generations are not compromised to generate sufficient, nutritious, safe, and accessible food while minimizing environmental impacts and ensuring economic viability (Sultonov et al., 2025).

Precision agriculture using AI and nanotechnology, hydroponics, aquaponics, vertical farming, and other water-efficient farming methods mitigate climate change impacts by reducing GHG emissions, while boosting agricultural productivity and fostering sustainable economic growth.

Nano technologies

Nanotechnology is one of the emerging cutting-edge innovative technological advances that will propel the agricultural revolution by providing efficiency in addressing the unpredictability of climate circumstances. For instance, nanotechnology boosts energy efficiency, increases plant nutrient uptake, lowers drought stress, and stabilizes soil temperature, while nanoparticles enhance stability and perhaps soil carbon sequestration (Dhal and Pal, 2023).

A multifaceted approach in regard to precise agriculture enhances climate resilience and promotes sustainability is provided by the creation of a smart delivery system based on nanoparticles (nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, and nanoherbicides) (Kashyap et al., 2018). Reactive nitrogen usage in agriculture can be decreased by using nanotechnology, whereas this technological advancement shows promises in improving plant stress, soil microbiome health, photosynthetic efficiency and crop output (Khaitov et al., 2024).

The interactions at the nanomaterial-plant–soil interface and the nanomaterial uptake level require a more investigation. The integration of these innovative technologies into agricultural practices still faces numerous limitations and challenges. Furthermore, further research is required to examine the large-scale deployment of nanomaterials in actual scenarios, as there is a lack of knowledge regarding the long-term environmental safety and human health concerns associated with their use (Zhang et al., 2021).

Land degradation neutrality (LDN)

Ongoing monitoring makes it possible to assess the success of land management plans meant to achieve land degradation neutrality (LDN) and to make timely adjustments. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which highlight the need for SLM techniques that improve resilience to climate change and advance food security, make achieving LDN a top priority on a global scale. Significant obstacles still exist, though, such as the absence of organized data collecting and stakeholder cooperation. The lack of thorough land-use regulations and efficient governance frameworks impedes attempts to stop land degradation and adopt sustainable practices in many areas, especially in developing nations.

Land degradation has significant socioeconomic ramifications, especially for rural communities whose livelihoods depend on the land. Reduced agricultural output, food insecurity, and poverty are frequently the results of degraded soil. In order to comprehend local issues and create adaptation methods, farmers’ perspectives on land degradation and their traditional knowledge are more effective strategies. In order to promote resilience and guarantee the durability of interventions meant to halt degradation trends, communities must be included in the management of land resources. Land degradation has major ecological effects in addition to socioeconomic ones which can be triggered by several factors, however, human activities and climatic issues were the main drivers.

Degraded land has a direct impact on biodiversity loss, ecosystem service disruption, and biogeochemical cycle modification. At both local and global levels, these alterations may have a domino effect on the availability of habitat for different species, water quality, and climate regulation. Therefore, tackling land degradation is important for maintaining the ecological integrity of our world as well as for restoring land production. Addressing the twin issues of climate change and land degradation requires incorporating climate-smart strategies into land management procedures (Mirzabaev et al., 2016).

Agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and sustainable grazing are among strategies that can improve soil health, boost carbon sequestration, and raise climate variability resilience. These restoration measures should be prioritized in degraded areas of Uzbekistan as the LDN initiatives.

Conclusion

This study highlights the extent, causes, and impacts of land degradation in Uzbekistan represent a complex and multifaceted challenge, necessitating integrated and innovative approaches. Based on the analysis, several regions particularly Karakalpakstan, Navoiy, and Bukhara provinces were found to have experienced severe land degradation and were identified as among the most critically affected areas.

Technological advances are required to shift from conventional practices to sustainable alternatives, i.e., resource saving land management, nanotechnologies, precision agriculture practices in a way that ensure food security while minimizing environmental impacts and rehabilitating degraded soils. Despite many challenges in integrating these technologies into agricultural practices, these interventions can provide ecosystem services, improving social stability and sustainability of food systems.

Effective policy responses must be informed by ongoing monitoring and assessment of the interaction between natural and human-induced processes. The driven LDN initiative necessitates creative climate-resilient methods and strategies for scaling up the production packages of sustainable land management, while creating a more resilient and sustainable future for people and the world by tackling the ecological and socioeconomic aspects of land degradation.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

SU: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. AN: Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Project administration, Methodology. NaN: Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Visualization. MK: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Resources. SB: Data curation, Resources, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. MU: Writing – review & editing, Resources, Validation, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis. BK: Resources, Validation, Conceptualization, Project administration, Methodology, Visualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing, Software, Data curation, Writing – original draft. NoN: Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Methodology.

Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This research was conducted under the Global Environment Facility (GEF)- funded project titled “Sustainable Forest and Rangelands Management in the Dryland Ecosystems of Uzbekistan” (LDN). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has been implementing this national project since 2022 in Uzbekistan with a target to improve land and forest use and restoration in the arid areas.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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Publisher’s note

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