Integrated approach to enhancing irrigation efficiency through water-saving technologies and regime adjustment: evidence from the Kurty irrigation massif

The conducted research and analysis of hydro-reclamation systems operation experience demonstrate that the share of groundwater in the total water consumption of agricultural crops directly depends on the depth of their occurrence and the degree of mineralization. When groundwater is close, it is especially important to strive to reduce the volume of irrigation rates. This reduces irrigation water losses, ensures more rational water use and increases the efficiency of water resources use in irrigated areas. The article considers the problems of irrigation in the Kurtinsky massif and presents the results of calculations of irrigation regimes for various levels of water availability (50, 75 and 95%). A comparative analysis of calculated and actual data on water consumption was carried out, which revealed a significant overrun of water and a low efficiency of the irrigation system. The factors affecting the efficiency of water resources use, including technical, organizational and economic aspects, are discussed. Recommendations are given for optimizing irrigation regimes and implementing water-saving technologies. The necessity of taking into account the influence of the level and mineralization of groundwater on the yield of agricultural crops is emphasized. The conclusion is made about the importance of an integrated approach to water resources management to ensure sustainable agricultural development.

1 Introduction

Irrigation has long been recognized as one of the key pillars of ensuring global food security and sustainable agricultural development, especially in areas exposed to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, where the natural distribution of precipitation is not sufficient to meet the needs of intensive agricultural production (Kalybekova et al., 2022, 2023). Precisely because of this, efficient planning and management of water resources becomes crucial not only for ensuring yields but also for the long-term stability of agro-ecosystems and rural communities (Liu et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2020). The Republic of Kazakhstan, with its extensive drought-prone lands, is a clear example of a region where the sustainability of production is directly linked to the rational use of water. The importance of irrigation in this country is reflected in the fact that it affects not only the provision of food sovereignty, but also the socio-economic development of the local population, which shapes the entire structure of the rural area (Hommadi and Almasraf, 2019; Akhundzadah and Kassam, 2025).

However, despite decades of efforts to improve and modernize infrastructure, Kazakhstan’s irrigation system faces serious and complex challenges (Ospanbayev et al., 2025). In addition to significant losses during water transport and application, additional problems include secondary soil salinization and the growing scarcity of available resources, which together limit agricultural production potential and threaten the ecological stability of the region (Vasilenkov et al., 2016). These problems are not isolated to Kazakhstan; they are characteristic of numerous regions of Central Asia, Africa and the Middle East, where irrigation systems are dominantly inefficient, and the consequences are expressed through soil degradation, productivity decline and increased dependence on foreign agricultural trade (Gou et al., 2020a, 2020b).

Similar problems are observed globally, especially in the regions of Central Asia, Africa and the Middle East, where inefficient use of water in agriculture dominates (Wu et al., 2022; Gabr, 2023; Dirwai et al., 2024). International experiences, such as those from Israel and Australia, show that the introduction of innovative water-saving technologies, including drip systems and wastewater recycling, can significantly improve crop productivity and environmental sustainability (Sandler et al., 2023; Coles and Camkin, 2023). Recent research confirms that smart technologies, including solar-powered systems and digitization of irrigation processes, open new opportunities for reducing losses and more rational use of water (Ali et al., 2025a, 2025b; Abdelhamid et al., 2025). However, a significant research gap remains. Most studies focus on individual aspects of the problem, either on improving efficiency using precise technologies (Kundu et al., 2025), or on evaluating system performance in certain regions (Kirmikil, 2025), while integrated approaches that connect irrigation regimes, water saving technologies and hydrological processes are still insufficient. A special challenge is the consideration of groundwater in the overall soil moisture balance; because its dynamics can significantly affect irrigation planning and cause secondary soil degradation processes (Gao et al., 2017). In this context, the Kurty irrigated massif in the Almaty region represents an extremely relevant study example, because it has typical problems of excessive water consumption, reduced productivity and negative environmental consequences. Its specificity is reflected in the fact that it simultaneously depends on reservoir waters and the contribution of groundwater, so all the key challenges of irrigation in Central Asia intersect here (Ospanov et al., 2022).

The purpose of the study is to create a scientifically-grounded methodology of the rational use of water by modeling the irrigation regime with consideration of the dynamics of groundwater, mineralization, planning and irrigation norms. The originality of the work is reflected in the fact that analytical modeling is combined with contemporary ideas of sustainable resource management, which breaks current failures in literature and provides realistic recommendations on how to maximize irrigation in limited resource conditions. This manner in which the research is conducted not only helps provide the local context, it also creates a methodological framework, which can be transferred into other areas of Central Asia, and perhaps further. With the gaps in the literature identified, as well as the peculiarities of the problem of water resource management in Kazakhstan themselves, the following research questions inform this study:

RQ1. What role can be played by optimization of the irrigation regime based on the dynamics of groundwater and the various soil moisture levels in enhancing efficiency of water utilization in the Kurty massif?

RQ2. To what degree can the findings of modeling irrigation be used as the basis of establishing recommendations, in which the technical, environmental, and economic aspect were combined, and thereby become a transposable pattern to other areas of Central Asia?

This study aims at quantitatively evaluating the efficiency of irrigation water consumption in the Kurty irrigation massif and to establish a combined and replicable model to optimize irrigation regimes by taking into account groundwater dynamics, soil mineralization level and water availability condition. In comparison to the previous literature that deals with specific hydrological or technological features, the present research is based on a systems orientation, which means that analytical levels that define the technical, environmental, and economic aspects of water management are intertwined into a consolidated framework. It is through this that the research will be able to give empirical evidence and methodological blueprint of enhancing the performance of irrigation and minimizing excessive water withdrawals in arid and semi arid climatic conditions. The framework developed is not only meant to create greater efficiency of irrigation in the region but also to be used in other regions as a model of sustainable water management regarding agriculture in Central Asia. To fulfill these purposes, the research is based on the combination of the field data analysis, institutional datasets and modeling of the performance of irrigation systems, providing quantitative accuracy and methodological clarity of the assessment.

1.1 Theoretical background

1.1.1 Irrigation efficiency and sustainable management of water resources

The problem of effective water utilization in the agricultural sector has gained more attention in recent years, not only because of the rising shortage of resources, but also because of climate change, which further complicates the design and management of an irrigation regime (Heyde et al., 2025). Modern literature provides a variety of solutions, such as technical analysis and new methods of precision irrigation, as well as taking into account socio-economic aspects of the assimilation of innovations (Xing et al., 2025). Importantly, the findings of the research prove the strong potential of modern technologies but their usage remains quite discontinuous and unequal. According to Rouzaneh et al. (2021), the effectiveness of the micro-irrigation is not only based on the technical competence of the system, but also the satisfaction of the users. They demonstrate that farmer’s perceptions of the technology play a key role in the acceptance and permanence of the technology and this would explain why social aspects should be incorporated into irrigation research. The approach poses a question that persists in the further researches: how to make the implementation sustainable when the technical innovations are not supported by corresponding institutional and educational solutions. At the technical level, Bwambale et al. (2022) demonstrate how smart monitoring and control systems of irrigation, which are built on sensors and automated systems, can help to reduce losses and become more reasonable in using resources. Their review, however, notes that often the potential of these technologies are hampered by the lack of infrastructure and high expenses, in particular, in less developed countries. Mallareddy et al. (2023) target the topic of rice production a year later, highlighting that the use of innovative irrigation methods can both help to reach higher yields and lower the environmental footprint. In their analysis, however, they suggest that extensive use needs systemic adjustments in the practices and incentives to farmers. Another movement toward the climate aspect is Lakhiar et al. (2024), who offer a detailed report of precision technologies in climate change. They verify that such systems not only enhance yields and water-use efficiency, but also lower ecological footprint, however, point out that little has been done in terms of researching their sustainability in the long-term. Their work provokes the question of how flexible these systems can be to various agro ecological conditions, in particular in the less resourceful regions. The latest studies provide more insight into certain elements of effectiveness.

Comparing drip irrigation and traditional flooding, Siddiqui (2025) proves that the drip system is much more efficient and allows better yield of tomatoes. But the author also highlights that economic and logistical obstacles continue to slack the process of moving to modern ways of doing things. Equally, Mondal (2025) demonstrate that precision systems have the ability to enhance yields and efficiency to water use but caution that high prices of the technology are a big challenge to its extensive adoption. With the implementation of renewable energy sources innovations, the opportunities of enhancing the efficiency are further extended. Güney and Döker (2025) created an urban agriculture-based solar-powered smart system, which can be viewed as an opportunity to create more sustainable food production. The author however critically points out that implementation of such systems on large scale particularly in rural areas is a difficult task. In their turn, Salman et al. (2025) bring about an integrated framework of Water-Energy-Food Nexus, in which they suggest new energy efficiency indicators as a part of the irrigation system evaluation. Their input demonstrates that efficiency cannot be considered in terms of yield or water use, but should be seen in a wider context of sustainability.

All these studies demonstrate that despite the advancement of technologies and the introduction of significant improvements in the form of yield and reasonable use of resources, there is a gap between the technical potential and the real realization. Importantly, there is no integrated approach that would unite the technical, ecological and socio-economic aspects, which would allow implementing a broader and more sustainable application of modern solutions in various agro-ecological contexts.

1.1.2 Smart and water-saving irrigation technologies

The introduction of smart irrigation technologies is an increasingly important solution to the global problem of the scarcity of water resources and the increasingly rising demand of efficient and sustainable agricultural production systems (Gupta et al., 2025). Nevertheless, despite the growing level of their implementation, a critical analysis of the literature reveals that there are obvious gaps between the potential of the technologies and their practice use in various agro ecological conditions (Smanov et al., 2025).

As Casadei et al. (2021) point out, smart irrigation systems have been used on Italian farmland, and these systems can save water and enhance productivity. Nevertheless, the authors note that the process of the implementation of traditional approaches to smart systems is associated with considerable investments and institutional backing, which often stalls their further introduction. Importantly, in spite of the obvious advantages of technological advances, socio-economic aspects are one of the major barriers to sustainability. Touil et al. (2022) systematize smart irrigation management approaches in their review and focus on their role in yield upsurge and water conservation. Their work also identifies the significance of the integration of sensor networks, automation and decision-making algorithms. Nevertheless, the authors state that the bulk of existing studies has not been actively used in the sphere of developing countries, where infrastructural and technical restrictions drastically decrease the scope of the technologies.

Abioye et al. (2023) go further, introducing a model of predictive control of a drip system that allows optimizing the distribution of water in a precise way. In their analysis they observe that predictive modeling can result in substantial savings of resources. More importantly, the question is, can such complicated systems be economically viable in the long run to small and medium agricultural players, particularly in such areas as Central Asia, where the cost of implementation is a pressing issue. Perelli et al. (2024) compare physical and economic productivity of water in southern Italy and reveal that frugal irrigation systems offer an even better yield-to-resources ratio than the traditional systems. Their results prove that smart technologies do not only make the environment more sustainable, but make it economically rational. Nevertheless, according to the authors, the implications are different in relation to the local conditions, which raise the question of whether the results can be transferred to other agro ecological settings. The WSN-based localization technique created by Hassan et al. (2024) enhances the effectiveness of smart irrigation, as the control and monitoring of the resources should be more accurate in conserving them. This innovation testifies to the possibility of a considerable optimization of the water use, though it brings up the question of the long-term stability of the complicated networks in the rural regions with a weak technical backup.

At the international level, Lakhiar et al. (2024) note that water saving technologies in climate change conditions can be smart and can increase yields and minimize the ecological footprint, but the effects of their use in the long term should be systematically studied. Vitally, despite an ever-growing debate around the relationship between climate change and irrigation, studies continue to focus on socio-economic and institutional aspects very rarely.

1.1.3 Regional and climatic perspectives on irrigation: Kazakhstan and international experiences

The issue of efficient management of water resources in Kazakhstan is one of the central issues of sustainable agriculture. According to the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the total area under irrigation is about 1.7 million hectares, and key crops include rice, cotton, vegetables and fruits (Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, 2025). However, water use efficiency remains suboptimal due to significant losses during transport and application, secondary salinization, and poorly regulated irrigation regimes (Rakhimov et al., 2025). Analyzes of hydro-melioration systems indicate that elevated groundwater levels lead to infiltration losses and leaching of nutrients, which further impairs soil quality (Mustafayev et al., 2018).

The case of the Kurty irrigated massif in the Almaty region is particularly indicative, where serious problems with excessive water use have been documented. During 2019, an analysis of withdrawals from the Kurty Reservoir showed significantly higher amounts of water withdrawn compared to actual crop needs, which led to reduced production efficiency, increased costs and negative environmental consequences (Tazhiyev et al., 2025). Modeling of irrigation regimes in this area, which included calculations for soil moisture thresholds of 50, 75 and 95%, indicated significant deviations between optimal and actual water application rates. This situation confirms that rational planning must take into account the contribution of groundwater in the overall soil moisture balance, as well as their level of mineralization (Kazakh Research Institute of Water Economy [KazNIIVH], 2016; Adenova et al., 2025). Otherwise, there is an accelerated degradation of the soil and a decrease in the long-term sustainability of production.

In a broader global context, similar problems have been identified in other arid regions of the world. For example, Gao et al. (2017) showed that in areas of shallow groundwater, such as the Hebei Plain in China, intensive irrigation directly contributes to declining groundwater levels. Gou et al. (2020a, 2020b) emphasize that improper irrigation practices can degrade ecosystems in the long term and reduce production sustainability. In addition, research by David and Akpambetova (2025) points out that inadequate groundwater management can lead to soil alkalization, further complicating the challenges in regions prone to degradation. Critically, most of the existing research in Central Asia remains focused on single technical or hydrological aspects, while integrated models that integrate technological, environmental and socio-economic dimensions are still lacking. Studies carried out in Ethiopia indicate that the combination of furrow irrigation techniques and the type of mulch used, has a significant influence on maize productivity and water productivity. Quraishi et al. (2020) discovered that mulching with an adapted water inflow regime minimizes the amount of evaporation losses and can help to make water use more efficient. Similarities were also identified in northern China, where Niu et al. (2024) demonstrated using a meta-analysis study that deficit irrigation of potatoes can enhance the productivity of the water without a major yield decline. These instances suggest that irrigation practices innovations, either in the form of adapting furrow irrigation or deficit irrigation, are globally applicable technologies that can be applied in the Central Asia setting.

Examples of international solutions illuminate the potential that Kazakhstan has yet to fully exploit. In Israel, a country with extremely limited fresh water resources, a sophisticated drip irrigation system has been developed that enables precise control over the amount and timing of water and nutrient application (Shani, 2025). This approach significantly reduced losses and simultaneously increased yields. In Australia, which regularly faces droughts, integrated resource management and wastewater recycling are key components of the national strategy for sustainable agriculture (Muturi et al., 2025). Both examples indicate that the successful application of innovative solutions is possible only in conditions of coordination between technological innovations, institutional support and regulation.

A literature review shows that, although numerous studies confirm the potential of smart technologies and water-saving systems to improve water efficiency. Indicatively, a study conducted in Pakistan has shown that deficit irrigation through various furrow methods may significantly enhance water productivity of cauliflower without any significant yield sacrifices (Subhan et al., 2021). The same results were obtained in Ethiopia, where furrow irrigation with mulching minimized evaporation and improved the yield of maize (Quraishi et al., 2020).

Although international evidence demonstrates the potential of smart and water-saving technologies to significantly improve irrigation efficiency and sustainability, their implementation in Central Asia remains minimal and fragmented. The studies carried out in Kazakhstan (Mustafayev et al., 2018) are predominantly focused on technical-hydrological aspects, while there is a lack of integrated research that would link the modeling of the irrigation regime with socio-economic and institutional dimensions. At the same time, comparative experiences from other countries confirm that success in implementation depends on a coordinated approach that combines technological innovation with regulatory and institutional measures, which in the Kazakh context has not yet been developed. Precisely because of this, the research carried out in the Kurty massif gains its justification: it seeks to connect hydrological modeling with the analysis of the efficiency of resource use and practical recommendations for the optimization of the irrigation regime, which not only fills the existing gaps in the literature, but also develops a methodological framework transferable to the wider area of Central Asia, which can serve as a bridge between local challenges and global solutions.

2 Materials and methods

Within the scope of the present study, theoretical estimations of irrigation regimes for agricultural crops were conducted at three specified levels of soil moisture availability: 50, 75, and 95%. These calculations incorporated crop-specific biological coefficients, long-term climatic (meteorological) data, and the duration of the phenological (growing) period. The data that was used in this research was collected as a result of field measurements, institutional record, and archival data of the local branch of Kazvodkhoz and the Big Almaty Canal bearing the name of D. Konaev. Direct measurements of the flow of irrigation were performed in the field where hydrometric equipment was mounted on the Left-bank and Right-bank canals of the Kurty Reservoir. In-situ soil moisture, depth of the groundwater and mineralization were sampled to provide supplementary information which was compared with the long-term meteorological monitoring of the Almaty Hydrological Station. All data were electronic processed and arranged in Microsoft Excel and ArcGIS to enhance internal consistency and spatial accuracy. The raw figures were corroborated with institutional reports to remove any difference between the reported and measured values. The general error of the field based measurements was approximated to be a margin error of 5% most driven by variation in discharge and manual reading periods. To make the modeling more reliable, all the indicators of the volume of irrigation and the balance of water were averaged within the three consecutive growing seasons (2019–2021) and reduced random fluctuations and the role of outlier years. This was necessary to develop representative dataset that represents the hydrological and operational features of the Kurty irrigation system. Lastly, comparative consistency check was done between theoretical modeling results and real field results so that differences could be effectively measured and explained by inefficiency of infrastructures or by meteorological exceptions. This crossed methodology will ensure transparency and replicability of the data collection and processing step. The irrigation demand from the Kurty Reservoir was quantified using conventional methodologies of agricultural water management and land reclamation (Kalybekova et al., 2022; Zhidekulova et al., 2018), in alignment with the guidelines provided by Kazakh Research Institute of Water Economy [KazNIIVH] (2016). Theoretical outcomes were validated through comparative analysis with empirical data on actual irrigation water usage from the 2019 growing season, as reported by the local branch of the “Big Almaty Canal named after D. Konaev” of the Republican State Enterprise for Economic Management “Kazvodkhoz.”

The net irrigation requirement, adjusted for the hydro-reclamation characteristics of the irrigated landscape, was calculated using the following formula:

${\mathrm{M}}_{\mathrm{p}.\mathrm{m}.}=\frac{M-E_v\cdot K_r\cdot K_c}{K_m};{\mathrm{m}}^3/\mathrm{ha}$

where М_p.m.—is the irrigation rate, for irrigated lands with a good soil-reclamation condition m³/ha.

Е_v—is the total water consumption of vegetables, which at Cu = 0.14 is 7,500 m³/ha.

К_m—is a coefficient that takes into account the salinity of the earth, calculated according to Table 1 and equal to 0.92.

Table 1

Table 1. The values of the land reclamation coefficient (Кm) are determined as a function of the salinity level in the aeration zone, the soil’s salt recovery capacity, and the depth of the groundwater table.

К_г—is a coefficient that takes into account the participation of groundwater in the water consumption of agricultural crops, calculated according to Table 2 and amounting to 0.29;

Table 2

Table 2. Coefficients for the potential utilization of groundwater and the dependence of total water consumption on groundwater depth.

K_c—is a coefficient that takes into account the possibility of using groundwater, calculated according to Table 3 and amounting to 0.65;

Table 3

Table 3. Coefficient (Kc) of permissible groundwater participation in subirrigation.

The coefficients К_м, К_r, К_с were determined based on the methodological guidelines established by the Kazakh Scientific Research Institute of Water Economy (Kazakh Research Institute of Water Economy [KazNIIVH], 2016). This approach ensures that the calculations are aligned with the specific regional agro-climatic conditions.

The correction factor (Кг), which accounts for the potential contribution of groundwater to crop water consumption, is contingent upon the depth of groundwater occurrence, the biological characteristics of the crops, and the hydro physical properties of the soils.

It has been determined that the degree of groundwater involvement in the water balance of agricultural crops exhibits an inverse relationship with the level of its mineralization. Specifically, an increase in mineralization by 5 g/L introduces a potential risk for secondary salinization, particularly when an irrigation regime is not fully optimized. In this context, to ensure the reclamation integrity of irrigated lands, it is essential to adjust the coefficient representing the contribution of groundwater to crop water consumption (Kc), incorporating the degree of mineralization. The recommended values for the coefficient (Kc) corresponding to various mineralization ranges are presented in Table 3, facilitating the optimization of irrigation regimes and mitigating the risk of adverse effects on the soil matrix.

The determination of irrigation regimes for agricultural crops was conducted through modeling, incorporating three distinct levels of moisture availability: 50, 75, and 95%, which correspond to average, moderately dry, and low-snowfall years, respectively. The simulation utilized biological coefficients of agricultural crops, long-term meteorological data, and the growing season duration, enabling a high degree of alignment with the regional agro-climatic characteristics. This approach ensured the accuracy and relevance of the results to local agricultural conditions.

3 Findings

The Kurty Reservoir, serving as the primary water source for the Kurty irrigated massif, is situated in the Ili district of the Almaty region. The hydroelectric facility is designed to regulate the flow of the Kurty River and facilitate irrigation for agricultural crops. The projected irrigation area is 13,700 hectares; however, the actual irrigated area in 2019 was 2,137 hectares, with a total water withdrawal for irrigation amounting to 52.027 million m³. Water was delivered through two main canals: the Left-bank and the Right-bank. The water delivery efficiency was found to be 48% for the Left-bank canal and 49% for the Right-bank canal, indicating considerable water losses during the transportation process.

The layout of the canals and irrigated lands suspended from the Kurty reservoir is provided in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Layout of canals and irrigated lands suspended from the Kurty reservoir. Source: Authors’ elaboration based on institutional data from Kazvodkhoz and field survey (2019).

As part of the research, theoretical calculations of irrigation regimes were conducted for three distinct moisture availability levels: 50% (representing average annual humidity), 75% (indicating an average dry year), and 95% (corresponding to a dry year). These calculations were based on the biological coefficients of agricultural crops, long-term meteorological data, and the duration of the growing season to Table 4, Figure 2.

Table 4

Table 4. Area of crops and their percentage ratio.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Indicators of acreage by crops. Source: Authors’ illustration generated from Table 4 data.

Irrigation regimes were calculated for each crop within the rotation, considering the soil reclamation conditions, groundwater depth, and mineralization levels.

Irrigation standards were established for each crop at varying moisture availability levels are presented in Table 5. The calculations utilized coefficients defined in accordance with the guidelines provided by KazNIIVH.

Table 5

Table 5. Values of water costs for irrigation of agricultural crops of the Kurty irrigation area of 2,137 ha.

The calculation outcomes indicate that as the moisture availability level increases, irrigation requirements also rise. This is attributed to the necessity of compensating for the moisture deficit in the soil during arid years. For instance, for vegetable crops, the irrigation rate at 50% moisture availability is 4,920 m³/ha, while at 95% moisture availability, it is 6,671 m³/ha. A comparable trend is observed for other crops. The total water volume required for irrigation also escalates with increasing moisture availability are presented in Table 6. At 50% moisture availability, the total volume is 23,294,719 m³, while at 95%, it rises to 30,600,064 m³. This signifies that significantly more water is required during dry years to maintain optimal irrigation levels. The weighted average irrigation rate per hectare similarly increases as moisture availability rises. At 50% moisture consumption, it is 10,900 m³/ha, and at 95%, it reaches 14,319 m³/ha. This indicates that in drier years, a greater volume of water is necessary per unit area. The average daily water consumption also demonstrates an upward trend with increased moisture availability. At the 50% level, it amounts to 129,415 m³/day, whereas at 95%, it rises to 170,000 m³/day. This implies that a more intensive water supply is required for irrigation during dry years.

Table 6

Table 6. Water consumption for irrigation purposes for the object under consideration.

These findings enable the assessment of water requirements for irrigation of the Kurty massif at varying moisture availability levels, thereby facilitating the development of an optimal irrigation regime for each year. An analysis of the theoretical calculations and their comparison with the actual water consumption data for the irrigation of the Kurty irrigation massif in 2019 revealed a substantial overuse of water. The actual water intake amounted to 52.027 million m³, whereas the theoretical calculations indicated considerably lower values.

According to our field data collected in 2019, actual irrigation withdrawals from the Kurty Reservoir amounted to 52.027 million m³, which substantially exceeded the theoretically calculated irrigation demand. These values were derived from direct measurements conducted at the Left-bank and Right-bank canals, verified through institutional reports. The results shown in Table 7 clearly indicate significant deviations between theoretical calculations and actual water consumption. Even in the scenario of 95% humidity assurance, the actual water intake was about 70% higher than the expected values. This difference confirms the low efficiency of the existing irrigation system and indicates large losses in the process of water distribution and application. Of particular concern is the fact that this practice generates not only economic costs but also negative environmental consequences, which further emphasizes the need for rationalization and modernization of the system. The results show that the efficiency of interfarm channels is very low (48–49%), which means that more than half of the water is lost during transport to the fields. This finding confirms that the system operates with severe infrastructure limitations and high losses.

Table 7

Table 7. Estimated and actual water costs for irrigation purposes for the object under consideration.

In the next section, the results of the modeling are addressed and they are compared with the field data of this research as well as with other previous studies. The results obtained as per our empirical measurements are clearly distinguished with the results offered by the literature to prevent transparency and traceability of the evidence base.

4 Discussion

The results of the research carried out in the area of the Kurty massif clearly show that the irrigation system operates with low efficiency and that there is a significant surplus in water consumption. According to our field measurements and modeled results, the calculated optimal irrigation regimes ranged between 23 and 31 million m³, while the actual consumption observed in 2019 was approximately 52 million m³. This means that even in a dry year, a surplus of about 70% was recorded. These findings confirm that inefficient resource management, outdated infrastructure and the absence of precise regulation lead to large losses and negative environmental consequences (Mustafayev et al., 2018; Kalybekova et al., 2023).

The importance of the results is reflected in the fact that the research not only documents excessive consumption and losses, but also provides quantitative evidence on the necessity of optimizing the irrigation regime, taking into account the dynamics and mineralization of groundwater. These findings are consistent with the tendencies reported by Liu et al. (2016) and Gao et al. (2017), but in contrast to those studies, our results are derived from direct field measurements and modeling specifically adapted to the hydrological conditions of the Kurty massif. In practical terms, this means that by reducing norms and applying more modern technologies, a balance between productivity and resource conservation can be achieved. This directly confirms the research goal formulated in RQ1: precise modeling of the irrigation regime and the inclusion of groundwater in the balance significantly increases the efficiency of resource use in the Kurty massif (Liu et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2017). At a critical level, our findings confirm and extend previous research in Kazakhstan and beyond. While earlier studies (Vasilenkov et al., 2016; Zhidekulova et al., 2018) mainly emphasized the technical-hydrological aspects, this research also includes the ecological consequences of inadequate planning and provides clear recommendations for optimization.

Compared to international experiences, the results indicate similar patterns, in the Hebei Plain of China, improper irrigation practices led to a drop in groundwater levels (Gao et al., 2017; Gou et al., 2020a, 2020b), while in Israel and Australia, coordinated strategies combining technological innovation, institutional support, and regulation ensured success (Sandler et al., 2023; Coles and Camkin, 2023). In relation to those examples, it is clear that the Kazakh system still lags behind precisely because of the lack of integration of innovations and institutional frameworks.

The answer to research question RQ2 shows that the modeling results have significance not only for the local context of the Kurty massif, but also the potential for transferability to other regions of Central Asia. The developed model enables the creation of recommendations that combine technical (optimization of norms and canal efficiency), ecological (prevention of secondary salinization and soil degradation) and economic dimensions (reduction of costs through more rational use). This develops a methodological framework that can serve as a basis for wider regional application and shaping of sustainable water resource management policies.

When the results are compared with contemporary literature, their innovation becomes clear. While studies like Bwambale et al. (2022) and Lakhiar et al. (2024) highlighted the potential of smart technologies for saving water, they did not take into account the specific hydrological conditions of the Central Asian region. Our findings fill that gap by indicating that without the integration of local factors, the level and mineralization of groundwater and infrastructure capacity, the application of new technologies cannot be sustainable. Also, while Kundu et al. (2025) and Siddiqui (2025) showed that precise systems increase yields and efficiency, our results emphasize that significant advances can be achieved by streamlining existing systems, even without full digitization. This conclusion is particularly important for countries with limited resources, where financial and institutional barriers often slow down the introduction of advanced technologies.

Overall, the results of this research contribute not only to the local solution of the Kurty Massif problem, but also to the development of a transferable model that can improve the sustainable use of water resources in Central Asia. This combination of theoretical modeling and practical recommendations represents an innovation and a significant contribution to the literature, because it connects hydro technical parameters with ecological and socio-economic dimensions, offering an integrated approach that has not been sufficiently developed until now. The comparative analysis confirms that the findings of this study are empirically grounded and extend previous theoretical and regional studies by incorporating direct field observations, which strengthen the reliability and practical relevance of the conclusions.

5 Conclusion

This research showed that inefficient use of water in agriculture represents one of the key systemic challenges of sustainable development in arid and semi-arid regions. The analysis carried out in the Kurty massif revealed that the actual water consumption in certain seasons significantly exceeds the calculated optimal norms, which leads to excessive withdrawal of resources, increased costs and negative environmental consequences. In this way, the research provided concrete evidence of the urgent need for the rationalization of the irrigation system and the connection of consumption planning with the hydrological dynamics of groundwater. The importance of these findings is reflected in the fact that they not only confirm earlier assumptions about the inefficiency of the system, but also provide quantitative guidelines that can serve as a basis for reforming irrigation practices and policies.

5.1 Theoretical implications

The research makes a significant contribution to the theoretical framework of sustainable management of water resources (Rashed and Senafy, 2004). While previous studies have mostly looked at technical or hydrological aspects in isolation, here an integrated model is developed that links irrigation regimes, groundwater dynamics, soil mineralization and climate parameters. This approach expands the existing theoretical models by introducing a multidimensional view of the problem and opens up space for new interdisciplinary research. It is particularly significant that the model proved to be flexible, it can be adapted to different agro-ecological conditions and different types of crops, which goes beyond the scope of a single case study. This lays the foundation for the development of the theory of integrated irrigation planning in regions threatened by climate change and water scarcity.

5.2 Practical implications

On a practical level, the research provides a number of concrete recommendations. First, the identification of optimal soil moisture thresholds (50, 75, and 95%) allows local farmers to adjust irrigation to the realistic needs of plants and thereby reduce excessive consumption. Second, the quantified evidence of overspending (about 70% of excess consumption compared to the budget) emphasizes the urgent need for rationalization, which directly affects the reduction of production costs and greater competitiveness of agriculture. Thirdly, it has been shown that efficiency can be improved even without full digitization, by more rational use of existing systems, thereby making a valuable contribution to regions with limited financial resources. Finally, the application of these results can contribute to the preservation of soil quality by reducing the risk of secondary salinization and degradation, thus preserving productivity in the long term.

5.3 Political implications

This research has strong political implications as it opens up space for policy reform in the area of water resource management. Empirical evidence of a large gap between optimal and actual spending points to the weaknesses of the existing institutional system and the need to strengthen it. The results can serve as a basis for: the introduction of regulations that will limit the excessive withdrawal of water from reservoirs and underground resources, the creation of a subsidy program for farmers to switch to energy-saving technologies, the development of integrated strategies that connect agriculture, environmental protection and local socio-economic development. It is particularly significant that this model can contribute to regional policy in Central Asia, as most countries in the region share similar problems of inefficient water use. Thus, the research results go beyond the local framework and provide a wider contribution to regional cooperation and the formation of joint strategies in the field of agriculture and water supply.

5.4 Limitations of the research and future research directions

Despite the important findings made by the study, there are some limitations. The study was carried out on a single massif that was irrigated and therefore the findings should be read carefully when considered on a broader area. The major part (mainly the secondary data and modeling) was also employed, without actual testing of different technological solutions in the field. It is also limited by the absence of data on socio-economic factors, i.e., willingness of farmers to adopt innovations, or their financial ability, as it becomes more challenging to observe the actual viability of the recommendations.

These findings should be developed in a number of ways in future research. To begin with, there is a need to have longitudinal research, which would be tracking the dynamics of water use and system efficiency during a longer duration and in various climatic conditions. Experimental studies need to be done that will test the interaction of smart technologies (e.g., sensor networks and solar systems) and optimized irrigation regimes. The research must be further conducted to socio-economic dimensions, so as to determine the readiness of farmers to implement recommendations and technologies. Comparative study of various irrigated massifs in Central Asia will allow validating the approach to the methodological framework elaborated in the given paper and expand its usage. Lastly, a convergence of hydrological models and climate scenario analyzes would provide space to develop predictive resource management systems that would be essential in the face of more strongly pronounced climate changes.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Author contributions

UO: Writing – original draft. IS: Writing – original draft. YI: Writing – original draft. TI: Writing – review & editing. SZ: Writing – original draft. KS: Writing – review & editing. AK: Writing – original draft. ZK: Writing – original draft. LD: Writing – original draft. TG: Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This research was funded by the grant of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, individual registration number AP22685329, “Improving the technology monitoring water bodies based on digital technologies and developing remote control device water metering in irrigation systems”.

Acknowledgments

This article was supported by the Flagship Research Groups Programme of the Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences (MATE) and by the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia (Contract No. 451-03-136/2025-03/200172).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Correction note

A correction has been made to this article. Details can be found at: 10.3389/fsufs.2025.1770154.

Generative AI statement

The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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