Understanding depression in basic education teachers: evidence from Brazil

Introduction: Teacher mental health is a growing global concern, particularly in under-resourced educational systems. Depression among educators compromises not only individual well-being but also the quality and equity of education. This study investigates the prevalence of depressive symptoms among Brazilian basic education teachers and explores how structural inequalities, particularly gender, race, parenthood, and prior psychiatric history, contribute to mental health outcomes.

Methods: A total of 273 teachers from public and private schools across Brazil responded to an online survey including sociodemographic items and the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ 9). Statistical analyses included Mann–Whitney tests and multiple logistic regression to compare group differences and estimate predictors of probable depression.

Results: Nearly half of participants (49.5%) scored above the PHQ-9 cutoff for probable depression. Female teachers and those with a history of psychiatric diagnosis were significantly more likely to report depressive symptoms. Black teachers exhibited higher scores and greater proportions above the cutoff. Parenthood showed no significant association with depression in this sample.

Discussion: These findings reveal that the mental health burden among teachers in Brazil is alarmingly high and closely tied to broader structural conditions. The combination of chronic emotional demands, institutional precarity, and intersecting social inequalities places educators, especially women and Black professionals, at heightened risk. These results emphasize the need for systemic policy responses that move beyond individual resilience frameworks and instead address the organizational, social, and racialized dynamics that shape teacher well-being.

Conclusion: This study contributes to the international dialogue on teacher mental health. The findings underscore the urgency of implementing structural interventions and equity-oriented policies that protect educators from cumulative psychological strain. Addressing teacher mental health is not only a matter of individual care but a strategic imperative for the sustainability and inclusivity of education systems worldwide.

1 Introduction

Mental health has increasingly become a global concern, especially regarding the effects of occupational stress on psychological well-being. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported a 25% increase in anxiety and depression globally following the COVID-19 pandemic (WHO, 2022). In Brazil specifically, 10.2% of individuals aged 18 or older reported having received a depression diagnosis in 2019, equivalent to approximately 16.3 million people, a 34% increase compared to 2013, when 7.6% of the population reported similar conditions (Instituto Cactus, 2023).

A concerning escalation of mental health challenges among teachers has been observed in recent decades (Ghasemi, 2025). There is a marked rise in mental health issues, including depression, among educators worldwide (Agyapong et al., 2022). Teacher mental health has historically been compromised by intense and complex working conditions. Bureaucracy, poor relationships, and workload are major stress factors that undermine teachers’ well-being (Zagni et al., 2025). With the advent of new technologies since the 1990s, these conditions intensified further. During the pandemic, the precariousness of teaching work increased significantly due to extended working hours and the abrupt shift to remote teaching, aggravating psychological distress among educators (Borges J. L. J. et al., 2022; Borges K. et al.,2022). A recent study of basic education teachers in China identified high levels of depression, anxiety, and burnout, underscoring that teacher mental health deterioration is a global phenomenon (He et al., 2025).

While these recent dynamics are striking, they must be interpreted as part of longstanding structural vulnerabilities within the teaching profession. The burnout theory (Maslach and Leiter, 1997) offers critical insights here by framing teachers’ mental health deterioration not as isolated incidents but as systemic outcomes of chronic emotional exhaustion, professional disillusionment, and depersonalization. Teaching demands sustained emotional labor and affective engagement, which, under conditions of excessive pressure and lack of institutional support, become unsustainable and even cause physical ill-health in teachers (Madigan et al., 2023). Rather than viewing the emotional suffering of teachers as an exception, burnout theory forces a recognition that it is a predictable and recurrent product of how educational systems are organized. Similarly, the job demands-resources model (Demerouti et al., 2001) deepens this analysis by showing that when the demands placed on teachers consistently exceed the available professional and emotional resources, psychological strain becomes inevitable. Within this model, it is not only the volume of work but the persistent imbalance between expectations and available support that generates adverse mental health outcomes. Recent data from Australia strengthen this interpretation by showing that the effects of high demands on teacher mental health intensify under conditions of declining autonomy, a pattern increasingly observed in contemporary educational systems (Morris et al., 2025). Understanding the experience of teachers through this lens highlights the urgent need to interrogate the structural and organizational dimensions of schooling, rather than attributing psychological outcomes solely to individual resilience or vulnerability.

The prevalence of mental suffering among teachers, notably depression, has substantial implications for both professional performance and personal well-being, ultimately impacting educational quality and student outcomes (Possa and Krause, 2023). Given these challenges, a detailed exploration of the factors influencing teachers’ mental health is essential to developing targeted, effective interventions on a global scale. Basic education teachers in Brazil face work conditions that differ substantially from those in higher education, including larger student groups, lower salaries, limited institutional autonomy, high administrative burden, and closer proximity to community-level social vulnerabilities. These contextual features create a distinct pattern of emotional demands that may shape mental health outcomes differently from those observed in other educational levels. Despite consistent evidence of mental health problems among teachers, few studies have examined how these systemic pressures operate specifically within basic education. Addressing this gap is essential to understand whether the vulnerabilities documented in other educational settings manifest similarly, or whether they assume unique forms in this segment of the workforce. The research questions guiding this study are: What is the probability of depression among basic education teachers in Brazil, and how is it associated with sociodemographic factors? Accordingly, the objectives of the study are (1) to estimate the prevalence of probable depression among basic education teachers in Brazil using the PHQ-9 scale, and (2) to examine how gender, race, parenthood, and prior psychiatric diagnosis are associated with depressive symptoms after adjusting for age. By examining these factors, this study aims to contribute not only to a better empirical understanding of teacher mental health, but also to a critical reassessment of how we theorize the profession itself: not as a neutral vocation, but as a socially and politically constructed space where certain bodies and identities bear disproportionate psychological burdens.

Although burnout theory and the job demands-resources model emphasize systemic mechanisms, these structures are also expressed through differential exposure and vulnerability across social groups. Individual sociodemographic variables such as gender, race, parenthood, and prior mental health history function as markers of how structural pressures become unevenly distributed within the profession. Examining these dimensions therefore allows us to identify which groups are disproportionately affected by system-level stressors, providing an empirical entry point to understand how broader organizational inequalities materialize in teachers’ mental health.

2 Challenges of the teaching profession and mental health outcomes

Across various educational systems, teachers experience demanding professional conditions characterized by heavy workloads, emotional exhaustion, inadequate institutional support, and difficulties maintaining a healthy work-life balance (UNESCO, 2024; Sabagh, et al., 2018; Watts and Robertson, 2011). Challenging work conditions can have impacts on a teacher’s wellbeing with physical, psychological, emotional, and social dimensions. A common source of stress for teachers is the lack of a healthy work-life balance (UNESCO, 2024). According to Sabagh et al. (2018), these stressors not only contribute to burnout but also compromise teachers’ overall well-being, leading to severe mental health outcomes like depression and anxiety.

The theoretical frameworks of burnout and the job demands-resources model are particularly relevant in illuminating how these conditions interact over time. Burnout theory stresses that emotional exhaustion is often accompanied by growing feelings of cynicism and loss of professional purpose, a progression especially visible among educators who are continuously exposed to unrelenting demands with little institutional validation (Maslach and Leiter, 1997). Meanwhile, the job demands-resources model suggests that while job demands such as workload and emotional strain are inevitable in education, their deleterious effects are significantly mitigated, or exacerbated, by the presence or absence of supportive resources (Demerouti et al., 2001). Thus, the deterioration of teacher mental health must be seen not as a side effect of the job, but as a structural consequence of systemic underinvestment in the emotional and material support of educational workers.

Studies conducted in Brazil indicate a significant relationship between teachers’ mental health and their living and working conditions (Vedovato and Monteiro, 2008). Brazilian teachers frequently encounter psychosocial stressors associated with dissatisfaction towards academic and institutional structures and unfulfilled personal expectations regarding daily work (Moreno-Jimenez et al., 2002). Depression is not only caused by work-related factors but can also be attributed to a pre-existing condition of the worker, exacerbated or developed by the specific work context (Brun and Monteiro, 2020). The inverse relationship between job satisfaction and depression highlights the importance of fostering a supportive work environment and positive personal relationships to mitigate mental health risks (Silva et al., 2018). Such findings suggest that any effective response to the crisis of teacher mental health must confront not only the symptoms but also the broader organizational pathologies that normalize emotional suffering within the profession.

2.1 Factors influencing depression among teachers

Multiple intersecting factors significantly influence depression risk among teachers. In Brazil, teachers report high levels of emotional distress linked explicitly to excessive workloads and unfavorable work environments, with women disproportionately affected (Ribeiro et al., 2023). Consistent with broader population trends, women teachers frequently report higher depression rates than their male counterparts, reflecting gender-based inequalities in occupational and societal roles (Maggioni et al., 2008; Mendes Rodrigues et al., 2019; Tostes et al., 2018). The intersection of gender and professional demands resonates with arguments from work–family conflict theory (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985), which contends that competing demands from home and work create chronic stress, especially in professions heavily feminized like teaching. Far from being isolated struggles, these tensions reveal systemic inequalities in the allocation of emotional and caregiving labor, both within households and within schools themselves.

Racial discrimination further compounds vulnerabilities to depression, as Black teachers experience disproportionate psychological distress stemming from systemic inequalities and discrimination within educational institutions (Gouveia Damasceno and Zanello, 2018). Critical race theory (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017) pushes this analysis further by arguing that racism is not an aberration but a constitutive element of social institutions, including schools. Evidence from higher education in Brazil reinforces this perspective, showing that Black mothers in academia are significantly more likely to present depressive symptoms than their White counterparts (Rocha et al., 2025). Thus, racialized experiences of exclusion, under-recognition, and microaggressions within educational environments must be understood not as peripheral factors but as central to explaining differential patterns of mental health among teachers.

Parenthood’s impact on mental health among educators presents mixed findings, with some studies highlighting significant mental health challenges, especially among women balancing teaching and family responsibilities (Metzger and Gracia, 2023). Data from Brazilian higher education shows that parenthood is a critical factor shaping the mental health of academics, with mothers reporting higher levels of depressive symptoms than nonmothers and fathers, and with specific vulnerabilities emerging at the intersections of gender and race (Rocha et al., 2025). These findings underline the importance of extending the investigation to basic education teachers, where similar structural pressures may exacerbate the risks to mental health.

During the pandemic, these structural pressures became even more pronounced. Evidence shows that factors such as having an immunocompromising condition, teaching remotely, working extended hours, and identifying as younger, female, or a racial and ethnic minoritized educator significantly increased the risk for mental health distress among PreK–12 teachers (Smith et al., 2025). These pandemic related vulnerabilities mirror and intensify the same inequities observed in non pandemic conditions, reinforcing that gender, race, and caregiving roles operate as structural determinants of teachers’ psychological well being rather than isolated sociodemographic characteristics.

3 Materials and methods

To answer our research questions, we adopted a quantitative research design. Specifically, this is a cross-sectional study conducted with an online convenience sample. Quantitative research was the most suitable approach, as it allowed for a robust statistical analysis, providing a detailed and comparative understanding of the data collected.

3.1 Ethical considerations and data collection

The project was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Fluminense Federal University (CAAE 52739721.0.0000.5243).

Data for this study were collected through a self administered online questionnaire. Teachers were invited to participate on a voluntary basis between March 10 and June 10, 2022. The survey was disseminated through social media, email, and messaging applications. The invitation described the purpose of the study, eligibility criteria being 18 years or older and currently working as a basic education teacher in Brazil, and assured anonymity and confidentiality. Before accessing the questionnaire, participants read an informed consent form and confirmed agreement electronically.

The questionnaire comprised two main sections: one focusing on sociodemographic characteristics and another containing the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) psychometric scale to assess depressive symptoms. Sociodemographic information included age, gender, race, state of residence, and parental status. Work-related variables covered the type of institution (public, private, community, or more than one). In addition, participants were asked whether they had ever received a mental health diagnosis from a psychiatrist or psychologist before the COVID-19 pandemic, with response options including depression, generalized anxiety, panic disorder, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, phobia, post-traumatic stress disorder, burnout, or “no diagnosis.” For the purposes of this study, these responses were collapsed into a dichotomous variable indicating self-reported prior psychiatric diagnosis. It is important to note that the instrument did not collect information on whether these diagnoses were related to COVID-19 or other life events, and we therefore interpret this measure broadly as an indicator of mental health history. It is important to note that by the time the survey was publicized, most teachers had already resumed in-person activities, despite ongoing effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, teachers had already been vaccinated, as they were included among the priority groups at the beginning of Brazil’s national vaccination campaign in mid-2021.

The PHQ-9 scale data was used to evaluate the depression status according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 5 (DSM-5) criteria (American Psychiatric Association, DSM-5 Task Force, 2013). The PHQ-9 is composed of nine items that evaluate major depressive symptoms as described in the DSM, while also measuring symptom severity, using a Likert scale with total scores ranging from 0 to 27 points. Each item refers to the frequency of symptoms experienced during the previous two weeks, scored from 0 (“not at all”) to 3 (“nearly every day”). According to established guidelines, PHQ-9 total scores are categorized as 0–4 minimal, 5–9 mild, 10–14 moderate, 15–19 moderately severe, and 20–27 severe depressive symptoms. The validation of the PHQ-9 was confirmed in a sample of the Brazilian population by Santos et al. (2013) showing adequate sensitivity and specificity for depression screening using a cutoff score of ≥9 points. Hence, in the present study, we classified the participants as having probable depression or not based on this threshold. Therefore, the results obtained should be interpreted as an estimate of the presence and severity of depressive symptoms, according to the standardized guidelines provided by this instrument.

3.2 Sample and data analysis

The original sample comprised 273 teachers working in basic education across public and/or private institutions in Brazil. Eligibility criteria for participation included being 18 years of age or older and currently working as a basic education teacher in the Brazilian educational system.

For analytical purposes, certain adjustments were made to the dataset. In the analysis of race, individuals self-identifying as preta and parda were combined into a single category referred to as “Black,” following the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) classification standards. Respondents identifying as Asian (n = 4), Indigenous (n = 1), or who selected “prefer not to say” (n = 8) were not included from the race-based analysis due to the very small sample sizes within those categories, which could compromise statistical reliability. Similarly, participants who identified as non-binary (n = 2) were not included in the gender-based analyses, as the small number of respondents precluded statistical comparisons. Therefore, the initial sample of 273 basic education teachers was reduced to a final analytical sample of 258 participants. Descriptive statistics for the smaller demographic groups are nonetheless presented in Table 1 to provide a comprehensive view of the sample composition. It is important to highlight that the limited number of participants in these categories also restricts the ability to explore intersections between variables such as gender and race.

Table 1

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of the initial (n = 273) and final (n = 258) samples.

Statistical analysis was performed using non-parametric Mann–Whitney tests to compare PHQ-9 scores across key demographic variables, including gender, parenthood status, and race. These tests were chosen due to the non-normal distribution of the PHQ-9 in our sample. Rank-biserial correlation was used to evaluate the magnitude of these bivariate comparisons. In addition to group comparisons, a multiple logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the predictive value of various factors on the probability of depression. The model included gender (male or female), race (white or black), parenthood status (not having children or having children), the absence or presence of a prior psychiatric diagnosis and age (as a continuous covariate). The assumptions of the multivariable logistic model were met. To further explore the robustness of our results, we compared our model parameters with a few reduced models. These results are found in the Supplementary material. All analyses were conducted using Sigmaplot 14.0 (SYSTAT Software, Inc.) and RStudio (R Core Team, 2024) with the ‘car’ (Fox and Weisberg, 2019), ‘effectsize’ (Ben-Shachar et al., 2020), and ‘boot’ (Canty and Ripley, 2024; Davison and Hinkley, 1997) packages.

4 Results

To address the research questions, we first present descriptive results on depressive symptoms in the overall sample, followed by subgroup comparisons according to gender, race, parenthood, and prior psychiatric history. We then summarize the associations observed in the multivariable logistic regression model.

We assessed the overall prevalence and severity of depressive symptoms in the full sample of teachers (n = 258). Basic education teachers had a mean PHQ-9 score of 10.08 (± 7.37), with a median of 9 (IQR = 11). The box plot is presented in Figure 1A. Additionally, 50.4% of participants scored above the cutoff score, indicating a high proportion of individuals with probable depression among basic education teachers (Figure 1B). The distribution of PHQ-9 scores across severity categories is presented in Table 2, providing a clearer view of the overall burden of symptoms in the sample, with 28.7% of teachers reporting moderately severe or severe levels. These findings suggest that basic education teachers are at great risk for depression, both in terms of the severity of symptoms and the overall prevalence of depression within this population. Given these findings, subsequent analyses were conducted to examine in detail the factors that may influence their high vulnerability to depression.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Distribution and prevalence of probable depression among basic education teachers. (A) Boxplot of PHQ-9 total scores. (B) Percentage of teachers meeting the cutoff for probable depression.

Table 2

Table 2. Distribution of PHQ-9 depressive symptom severity among basic education teachers (n = 258).

In order to investigate the specific factors influencing the increased vulnerability of basic education teachers to depression, we first analyzed gender differences within this group. Regarding gender (Figure 2A), we observed a significant difference when comparing the PHQ-9 scores between men (median = 6.5, IQR = 11.75) and women (median = 9, IQR = 11) in basic education (p = 0.003, rank-biserial r = −0.26, 95% CI [−0.41, −0.10]). The difference of nearly three points in the median PHQ-9 scores between women and men indicates a meaningful gap in symptom burden. When examining the percentage of individuals scoring above the cutoff point on the PHQ-9 scale, we found that female teachers in basic education had a higher percentage (54%) when compared to men (37.9%), indicating a greater proportion of probable depression in women (Figure 2B). This gender gap highlights how women in teaching face disproportionate emotional strain, consistent with the broader literature on gendered patterns of mental health.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Distribution and prevalence of probable depression among basic education teachers by gender. (A) Boxplot of PHQ-9 total scores for men and women. (B) Percentage of men and women meeting the cutoff for probable depression.

With regard to parenthood, teachers in basic education who had children presented slightly higher PHQ-9 scores (median = 9, IQR = 12) compared to those without children (median = 8.5, IQR = 10) (Figure 3A), with no statistically significant difference between the groups (p = 0.893, rank-biserial r = −0.01, 95% CI [−0.15, 0.13]). Additionally, a similar proportion of teachers with children (50.6%) scored above the cutoff point, compared to 50% among non-parents (Figure 3B). It is important to note that the analysis considered mothers and fathers together, which may obscure specific effects associated with motherhood, especially if effects among fathers are minimal. Nevertheless, the near identical prevalence among parents and non-parents suggests that the professional context itself may be a stronger determinant than parenthood status.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Distribution and prevalence of probable depression among basic education teachers by parenthood status. (A) Boxplot of PHQ-9 total scores for teachers with and without children. (B) Percentage of teachers with and without children meeting the cutoff for probable depression.

Considering race, Black teachers in basic education presented a higher PHQ-9 score (median = 11, IQR = 10) compared to White teachers (median = 7.5, IQR = 11), as shown in Figure 4A. Although the difference in scores suggests greater depressive symptom severity among Black teachers, the comparison did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.115, rank-biserial r = −0.11, 95% CI[−0.25, 0.03]). However, a larger proportion of Black teachers (59.6%) scored above the PHQ-9 cutoff, compared to 45.1% of White teachers (Figure 4B), pointing to a potential trend of increased vulnerability to depression among Black educators in basic education.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Distribution and prevalence of probable depression among basic education teachers by race. (A) Boxplot of PHQ-9 total scores for White and Black teachers. (B) Percentage of teachers in each racial group meeting the cutoff for probable depression.

Finally, we explored the role of prior psychiatric diagnosis, which is closely linked to current mental health vulnerability. A total of 45.7% of teachers reported having received a psychiatric diagnosis from a psychologist or psychiatrist before the COVID-19 pandemic (Table 1). Teachers with a prior psychiatric diagnosis were considerably more likely to score above the PHQ 9 cutoff than those without such history. While 36.4% of teachers without a prior diagnosis met the threshold for probable depression, this proportion rose to 66.9% among those with a prior diagnosis, highlighting the strong association between mental health history and current depressive symptoms.

Taken together, these bivariate results indicate that gender and mental health history are strongly associated with probable depression, while race shows a suggestive pattern, and parenthood does not appear to be a significant factor. To further explore the contribution of specific sociodemographic variables to the probability of depression, and considering the significant group differences observed in earlier analyses, a multiple logistic regression was conducted. This approach allows for the examination of individual predictors while controlling for possible confounding effects. The model included gender, race, age, parenthood, and previous diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder as independent variables. These variables were selected based on their theoretical relevance for determining probable depression and on the results of prior bivariate analyses, which highlighted their importance. As shown in Table 3, gender (OR = 1.96; p = 0.038) and previous mental health conditions (OR = 3.46; p < 0.001) emerged as significant predictors. Although not statistically significant (OR = 1.62; p = 0.082), an odds ratio of 1.62 suggests an increased vulnerability among Black teachers. These findings indicate that being a woman and having a prior history of psychiatric disorders are key risk factors for depression among basic education teachers, with race potentially playing a contributory role.

Table 3

Table 3. Multivariable logistic regression with probable depression as dependent variable (n = 258).

5 Discussion

This study aimed to evaluate the depression levels and related mental health factors in teachers in basic education in Brazil, as well as identifying which variables may predict these outcomes, considering gender, race, and parenthood. The data obtained from the PHQ-9 scale revealed that basic education teachers had a high probability of depression. Additionally, when segregated by gender, women showed higher scores for depression in basic education. Regarding parenthood, there was no significant difference between teachers with children and teachers without children. Regarding race, Black teachers showed higher median PHQ-9 scores and a greater proportion above the cutoff for probable depression compared to White teachers, although this difference was not statistically significant. Gender and previous mental disorders were significantly associated with probable depression. While our analytical focus was on individual sociodemographic factors, these variables should be interpreted as indicators of broader structural conditions rather than isolated personal characteristics. This interpretation is consistent with the job demands and resources model, which assumes that social positions and institutional arrangements shape how demands and resources are distributed across workers and, consequently, how mental health risks are patterned.

It is important to interpret the results obtained in our study in light of the timing of data collection, which occurred in 2022, shortly after the return to in-person teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic. This context was marked by residual health concerns, increased demands to address learning losses, and blurred boundaries between work and personal life following extended periods of remote teaching. Previous studies have shown that these conditions significantly impacted teachers’ lives (Pereira et al., 2023; Troitinho et al., 2021). Therefore, while the high prevalence of depressive symptoms observed here likely reflects long-standing structural vulnerabilities in the teaching profession, it may also have been intensified by the cumulative burden of the pandemic period. This contextual factor does not diminish the structural nature of the problem; rather, it illustrates how chronic vulnerabilities in the teaching profession were further exposed and aggravated by the pandemic.

Our study offers an in-depth look at the mental health of basic education teachers in Brazil, contributing to the growing body of research that seeks to understand the psychological burdens faced by educators. By focusing on a national sample, our findings provide a broader and more representative picture of the current situation, which is essential given that much of the existing literature is based on studies conducted in individual schools, municipalities, or specific regions. This national scope allows us to capture a more comprehensive view of the challenges faced by teachers across different contexts. The results are concerning: 50.4% of basic education teachers in our sample scored above the PHQ-9 cutoff, indicating a high prevalence of probable depression. Local studies have reported similar figures. For instance, Ruas et al. (2022), in a study conducted with public school teachers in Montes Claros, in southeastern Brazil, found that 52.6% of teachers were diagnosed with depression, highlighting the concerning nature of this finding. Baldaçara et al. (2015), in a study involving 109 public school teachers in Palmas, in the north of Brazil, found that 49.5% of teachers exhibited Common Mental Disorder (CMD). da Rocha and de Souza (2013), in a study conducted in 31 public schools in Pelotas, in the south of Brazil, with 575 secondary education teachers, estimated the prevalence of CMD to be 43.8%. Batista et al. (2013) found that more than half of the medical leave cases (51%) among teachers in João Pessoa, in the northeast of Brazil, were due to diagnoses related to depression, preventing them from working for some time. Filippsen and Marin (2020) observed that 80.6% of the teachers in their sample were classified as having depression indicators ranging from normal to mild, 6.5% were moderate, and 12.9% had severe to extremely severe depression. These alarming rates, consistently found across different regions of Brazil, suggest that traditional frameworks used to explain occupational stress, such as the job demands-resources model (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker and Demerouti, 2017), may need to be critically expanded when applied to teaching. While this model predicts increased vulnerability to adverse mental health outcomes under conditions of high demand and low support, the high prevalence of probable depression observed in our study points to a context where resource depletion is not episodic but chronic, creating a situation closer to structural exhaustion than situational imbalance. In interpreting this scenario, the burnout theory (Maslach and Leiter, 1997; Schaufeli, 2017) offers important insights. Burnout describes a psychological condition characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a diminished sense of personal accomplishment, typically emerging from prolonged exposure to occupational stressors. In the environment of Brazilian basic education, marked by political instability, lack of social recognition, and institutional precariousness, the conditions that favor burnout are not only present but deeply entrenched. Rather than representing an occasional risk, the chronic exposure to emotionally draining work may lead to accelerated trajectories of burnout among teachers, eroding psychological resilience over time. Although burnout and depression are distinct constructs, growing evidence highlights the strong interconnections between them. Several studies have demonstrated that burnout is significantly associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety (Koutsimani et al., 2019). In Italy, teachers with higher levels of burnout reported higher levels of depression (Capone et al., 2019). A meta-regression analysis by Meier and Kim (2022) reinforces the connection between burnout and depression, while also highlighting that this relationship can be shaped by variables such as age, gender, and length of professional experience. These findings are critical for interpreting our results: the pervasive depressive symptoms identified in our sample may reflect not only isolated psychological distress but the cumulative effects of long-standing occupational burnout processes that, left unaddressed, transition into clinical depression. This interpretation is supported by longitudinal studies that indicate a directional relationship from burnout to depression. Hakanen et al. (2008), in a panel study of Finnish workers, demonstrated that burnout predicted later depression, rather than the reverse. Similar patterns were observed by Hakanen and Schaufeli (2012) in a three-wave study, where increases in burnout were found to precede increases in depressive symptoms. Additionally, Shin et al. (2013), in a longitudinal study with teachers in Korea, reported that initial levels of burnout significantly predicted depressive symptoms 18 months later. Collectively, these findings strengthen the hypothesis that chronic exposure to burnout processes may constitute a key pathway leading to the development of clinical depression among teachers. Thus, while our study measured depressive symptoms, the contextual reading provided by burnout theory helps to illuminate the underlying occupational dynamics that may be propelling teachers from chronic emotional exhaustion to more severe psychological conditions. Taken together, these findings provide empirical support for the idea, central to both burnout and job demands and resources frameworks, that prolonged exposure to high demands in the absence of adequate resources can gradually transform occupational strain into clinically relevant depressive symptoms. The findings suggest that interventions aimed at improving teacher mental health must not only target individual symptoms but address the organizational structures that sustain continuous emotional depletion and systemic disregard for educators’ well-being.

Troitinho et al. (2021) stated that one of the significant causes impacting the mental health of basic education teachers in Brazil was emergency remote learning. Pereira et al.’s (2023) findings indicated that the shift to remote learning significantly affected teachers’ personal and professional lives. Emergency remote teaching collapsed traditional boundaries between work and home, intensifying work–family conflicts and overburdening teachers with demands for which few institutional resources were available. From the perspective of the job demands-resources model (Demerouti et al., 2001; Bakker and Demerouti, 2017), this shift dramatically increased demands, such as technological adaptation, content redesign, and constant availability, without providing corresponding resources like training, time flexibility, or psychosocial support. The abrupt overlap of professional and personal roles, particularly for women teachers, also resonates with the work–family conflict theory (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985), highlighting how unresolved conflicts between spheres of life produce cumulative stress and contribute to psychological exhaustion. Research during the pandemic has reinforced these patterns. The pandemic context can be understood not as introducing new pressures but as accelerating the accumulation of chronic occupational stressors, pushing many teachers beyond their adaptive thresholds. The collapse of minimal protective buffers previously maintained by teachers illustrates how precarious their working conditions already were prior to COVID-19. Thus, the pandemic did not merely create new challenges; it exposed and amplified the longstanding structural frailties of the educational system in supporting teacher well-being.

As seen in the present study, female teachers in basic education had the highest percentage (54%) of individuals scoring above the cutoff point on the PHQ-9. According to the women reported being diagnosed with depression approximately 2.8 times more frequently than men. When comparing the years 2013 and 2019, the proportion of individuals reporting a depression diagnosis slightly increased more among women (35%) than among men (31%). A study by Maggioni et al. (2008) showed that women are more affected by depression, accounting for 71.11% of occurrences. Indeed, Faria (2024) corroborates these findings in his study with 308 teachers from the state school system in Londrina, in the south of Brazil, where 36.5% of women and 25% of men were classified as depressed (mild, moderate, or severe depression). Mendes Rodrigues et al. (2019) found that of the 163 teachers interviewed in a public institution in Teresina, in the northeast of Brazil, 74.8% presented some level of depression, with 79.8% of women and 64.8% of men being affected. A similar result was observed by Tostes et al. (2018), whose study with teachers from a public school in Paraná, in the south of Brazil, showed higher prevalence of depression at any level in women (67.86%) compared to men (54.32%). Barreto and Hissa (2020) conducted a study with secondary school teachers in Fortaleza, in the northeast of Brazil, and found that 67% of teachers with mental health issues were women, presenting varying degrees of depression severity. Segat and Diefenthaeler (2013) also found in their study with basic school teachers that the onset of depressive illnesses and the use of antidepressant medications is more common among women. International data reinforce this pattern: in a study with Peruvian teachers, Estrada-Aaroz et al. (2023) found that women were more likely than men to present moderate and high levels of depression (30.9% vs. 5.3%, respectively). Similarly, in Poland, depressive behaviors were significantly more frequent among women teachers (26%) than among men (14%) (Domagalska et al., 2021). Collectively, all these studies align with our research findings that indicate that women were almost twice affected by depression in comparison to men (OR = 1.95, p = 0.038). The persistent and robust gender differences observed in depression prevalence among teachers invite a theoretical reflection on how work and family responsibilities intersect with occupational demands to disproportionately affect women. Work–family conflict theory (Greenhaus and Beutell, 1985) offers a crucial perspective here, suggesting that women often face overlapping and competing pressures in both the domestic and professional spheres, leading to chronic emotional strain. In the teaching profession, which is historically feminized and emotionally demanding, these dynamics become even more acute. Female teachers are not only expected to deliver professional excellence under precarious working conditions, but are also often burdened with primary caregiving roles outside the school environment, creating a continuous cycle of unresolved demands and limited recovery opportunities. Moreover, the layering of these demands over time can erode psychological resilience, making women teachers particularly vulnerable to the onset of depression. The accumulation of workplace pressures, emotional labor, societal expectations, and family responsibilities contributes to an environment where the risk of mental health deterioration is persistently higher for women. Our findings, therefore, not only confirm the epidemiological patterns documented in the literature but also reinforce the argument that structural gender inequalities are central to understanding mental health disparities in education. In this sense, the gender pattern observed in our data offers a concrete example of how work family conflict and job demands and resources perspectives operate within a feminized profession marked by chronic emotional demands and limited institutional support. Addressing these disparities requires moving beyond individual-level interventions and tackling the systemic factors that reproduce unequal distributions of emotional burden between men and women within and beyond the teaching profession.

Regarding race, although not reaching the statistical significance level, we observe that the odds of scoring above the cutoff point for probable depression is 62% higher for Black teachers (OR = 1.62, p = 0.082), consistent with Gouveia Damasceno and Zanello (2018), who state that depression is one of the most significant effects of racial discrimination on the mental health of the black population. Martins and Santos (2023) further support this, emphasizing that, in addition to socioeconomic factors and poor-quality healthcare services, depression is closely related to suicidal behavior, hereditary factors, and the lack of effective public policies, all of which threaten the lives of black individuals. Although the difference did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance, this result must be interpreted with caution given the unequal group sizes: only 96 participants self-identified as Black, compared to 164 who identified as White. The relatively small number of Black participants likely limited the statistical power of the analysis, and it is plausible that with larger subsamples the difference would reach significance. But, regardless of the fact that the difference did not reach conventional levels of statistical significance, the magnitude of the association suggests that racialized experiences within the teaching profession contribute meaningfully to the vulnerability to depression among Black educators. From the perspective of critical race theory (Delgado and Stefancic, 2017), these findings can be interpreted not as isolated phenomena but as outcomes embedded in structural and institutional dynamics that perpetuate racial inequalities. In educational contexts, racism may manifest through mechanisms such as professional marginalization, limited access to leadership positions, daily microaggressions, and lack of institutional support, all of which cumulatively erode psychological well-being. Repeated exposures to racial discrimination function as chronic stressors, accumulating over time and undermining mental health resilience. The convergence of occupational stressors and racial discrimination thus creates a particularly hazardous environment for Black teachers, amplifying the risks of emotional suffering and depression. Recognizing the role of racism as a determinant of health is crucial for developing mental health policies and institutional practices that move beyond generic interventions and explicitly address the intersectional vulnerabilities faced by Black educators.

Previous psychiatric disorder was also a significant predictor of probable depression (OR = 3.46; p < 0.001). In our study, 45.7% of basic education teachers reported having a prior psychiatric diagnosis, a proportion notably higher than that found in other studies, such as Baptista et al. (2023), who reported 30.09%. According to Brasil (2019) and Brasil. Ministério da Saúde (2021), having a previous mental health condition such as anxiety, bipolar disorder, a family history of depression, or past depressive episodes is considered an important risk factor for developing depression. This strong association between prior psychiatric diagnosis and current depressive symptoms is consistent with international literature. For instance, Cho et al. (2022) demonstrated in a large case–control study that psychiatric disorders and sleep-related conditions substantially increase the odds of developing major depressive disorder, reinforcing the interpretation that pre-existing vulnerabilities play a decisive role in shaping current mental health outcomes. This finding underscores the importance of secondary prevention strategies and of providing sustained institutional support for educators with pre-existing vulnerabilities. The elevated proportion observed in our sample may reflect the cumulative effects of chronic work-related stress or increased awareness and willingness to report mental health issues among educators. Further investigation is needed to better understand how these prior conditions interact with professional demands and contribute to the increased vulnerability of basic education teachers. From a theoretical standpoint, this result is compatible with models that conceptualize burnout and depression as partially overlapping trajectories, in which pre existing vulnerabilities amplify the impact of demanding and poorly resourced work environments.

Parenthood was not significantly associated with depression (OR = 1.2, p = 0.510). It is important to note that the variable parenthood included both fathers and mothers together. The heterogeneity of experiences of parenthood between men and women may be the factor underlying this lack of significant difference. Indeed, previous studies suggest that mental health fluctuations associated with parenthood tend to be more pronounced among women than men (Metzger and Gracia, 2023). Previous studies in higher education in Brazil have shown that parenthood interacts strongly with gender and race, with mothers (and especially Black mothers) reporting higher prevalence of depressive symptoms than fathers or women without children (Rocha et al., 2025). This suggests that future research should examine parental roles with greater granularity to capture these intersectional dynamics. The absence of an overall association in our data does not contradict work family conflict theory, but rather indicates that more detailed measures of caregiving intensity and role overload are needed to fully test its expectations in the context of basic education.

5.1 From evidence to action: addressing teacher mental health in Brazil

The results of this study reveal that nearly half of basic education teachers in Brazil experience depressive symptoms at a level consistent with probable depression, with women and those with a prior psychiatric diagnosis disproportionately affected, and Black teachers showing a concerning trend of increased vulnerability. These patterns collectively mirror the mechanisms described by burnout and job demands and resources theories, in which structural imbalances between demands and available resources generate unequal distributions of psychological strain among different social groups. Our findings highlight structural inequalities within the educational system and demand urgent and context-specific policy responses. Unfortunately, investment in education in Brazil, particularly in basic education, remains below the level required to provide teachers with adequate support. Mental health policies are often absent from educational planning, leaving the burden of coping to individuals who already operate in precarious conditions. To move from evidence to action, resources must be reallocated and expanded to prioritize teacher well-being as a foundation for educational quality.

Based on our findings, we recommend the following actions:

1. Institutionalized mental health monitoring: Establish periodic use of validated screening tools within schools, accompanied by referral pathways to public health services (SUS). Given that teachers with a prior psychiatric history showed the highest vulnerability, specific protocols should be developed to ensure follow-up for educators with known risk factors.

2. Targeted support for women and Black educators: Gender and race emerged as critical axes of inequality. Policies should explicitly address these intersectional vulnerabilities, for example by offering mentorship and peer support programs for Black women teachers, strengthening access to career development opportunities, and creating safe channels to report discrimination and harassment in the workplace.

3. Expansion of psychosocial services within education systems: Schools should be integrated into broader community health networks, ensuring that psychological and psychiatric support is accessible and confidential. Dedicated school-based professionals, such as psychologists and social workers, are essential for reducing stigma and facilitating timely intervention.

4. Workload reorganization: Our data indicate that the burden of depression is not explained by parenthood alone but reflects the cumulative strain of professional demands. Reducing excessive non-teaching administrative tasks, ensuring reasonable teaching loads, and providing paid time for professional development are critical strategies to prevent the progression from chronic stress to clinical depression.

5. Training of school leaders in mental health-responsive management: Principals and administrators play a decisive role in shaping school culture. Leadership development programs should include training on recognizing signs of mental health distress, implementing inclusive practices, and fostering environments that value teacher well-being.

6. Policy integration and funding priorities: Teacher mental health should be incorporated into national and state-level education plans, with dedicated funding streams. Investments in this area should not be seen as ancillary but as central to improving educational outcomes, reducing absenteeism, and retaining qualified educators.

We acknowledge the severe financial and staffing constraints faced by Brazilian schools, particularly in basic education. Resources for education remain insufficient, and mental health support is rarely prioritized in institutional planning. We are aware that implementing the recommendations outlined here would require a significant reorientation of priorities in a system already underfunded and overburdened. Still, presenting these pathways is essential: even if they are difficult to achieve under current conditions, they highlight the direction that policies and institutional practices must move toward if teacher well-being is to be taken seriously.

By situating teacher mental health as a structural challenge rather than an individual failing, these recommendations emphasize that the sustainability of Brazilian education depends on policies that protect and support those who sustain it.

5.2 Limitations and future directions

This study has some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. First, the reliance on self-reported data introduces potential biases, such as underreporting or overreporting of depressive symptoms. While the PHQ-9 is a validated and widely used screening tool, the subjective nature of self-assessment may affect the accuracy of depression probability estimates. Second, the sample size of male participants was relatively small compared to female participants, which may limit the generalizability of gender comparisons and the broader applicability of the findings. Third, although the study captured key sociodemographic variables, it did not account for other potential factors that could influence teachers’ mental health, such as specific work environment conditions, levels of institutional support, or individual coping strategies. The questionnaire did not collect additional work-related variables such as years of teaching experience, workload, specific job duties, or detailed working conditions. These factors are highly relevant for understanding teacher mental health but were not part of the instrument used in this study and are acknowledged as limitations. Future studies with larger samples are warranted and should address these and other relevant variables, including type of school, region of the country, and the nature of the institution (public or private), among others. Fourth, although the study was disseminated nationwide in Brazil, it cannot be considered a national-level epidemiological study due to the limited number of responses collected, which undermines the representativeness required for research of this nature. In addition, the study relied on broad sociodemographic variables that do not fully capture the structural mechanisms discussed in the theoretical framework. This conceptual limitation restricts the extent to which the findings can speak to the complexity of the systemic processes shaping teachers’ mental health.

Despite these limitations, the study provides valuable insights into the mental health challenges faced by basic education teachers in Brazil. The results highlight the urgent need to prioritize mental health care for teachers, emphasizing both the prevention and appropriate treatment of depressive symptoms. Future research must continue to unravel the complex pathways linking professional structures, social inequalities, and mental health outcomes, ensuring that interventions are not only evidence-based but also socially just.

6 Conclusion

This study sheds light on a pervasive and deeply rooted mental health challenge within the educational sector. Nearly half of Brazilian basic education teachers scored at or above the PHQ 9 cutoff indicating probable depression. Women and teachers with a prior psychiatric diagnosis had higher odds of probable depression, a racial disparity likely affecting Black teachers approached significance, and parenthood was not significant. These results suggest that depression risk in this workforce is shaped by structural conditions in schooling rather than individual factors alone. Institutions and policymakers should reduce chronic job demands, provide confidential psychological support with clear referral pathways, and implement equity oriented measures that address gender and race based vulnerabilities. It is essential to foster an organizational culture that values and supports teacher well-being, moving beyond the rhetoric of resilience to implement structures and resources that sustain mental health throughout educators’ careers.

Future research should adopt longitudinal and mixed method designs, include richer workplace metrics and intersectional analyses, and test multi level interventions that combine organizational change with improved access to care.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Research Ethics Committee—Fluminense Federal University. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

KS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. AM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. SR: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. RM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. MN: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – review & editing. MP: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – review & editing. LO: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. FS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was supported by the federal and state Brazilian Funding Agencies Conselho Nacional deDesenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) -CAPES/PRINT Finance code 001, and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the participants who responded to the survey for their valuable contributions.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2025.1669000/full#supplementary-material

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