Fostering critical reflection in pre-service science teachers through video-based lesson analysis in South Africa

Introduction: Reflective practice is widely recognized as essential for effective teacher education, yet fostering deep, critical reflection among pre-service teachers remains challenging. In science education, where conceptual complexity and pedagogical demands intersect, reflection is crucial for bridging theory and practice. This study explores how video-based lesson analysis supports reflective engagement among pre-service physical science teachers in South Africa.

Methods: A qualitative case study was conducted with 79 purposively selected pre-service teachers (45 PGCE and 34 BEd) from four higher education institutions. Participants analysed a video-recorded lesson on acids and bases and produced written reflections. Töman’s three levels of reflection (technical, application, and critical) served as the conceptual framework for analysis.

Results: Findings indicate limited engagement with critical reflection and a significantly higher incidence of “no reflection” among PGCE participants. Only 23 participants demonstrated coherent, detailed reflections across all three levels. Most reflections remained at technical and application levels, revealing a gap in higher-order reflective thinking.

Discussion: The results suggest that video-based analysis alone does not guarantee deep reflection. Without structured guidance and scaffolding, pre-service teachers tend to focus on surface-level observations rather than interrogating underlying pedagogical assumptions. This highlights the need for targeted strategies within teacher education programs to cultivate critical reflection as a core professional competency.

Conclusion: Video-based lesson analysis offers potential for enhancing reflective practice, but its impact depends on deliberate integration of support mechanisms. Teacher educators and policymakers should prioritize structured reflection frameworks to prepare pre-service teachers for adaptive, inquiry-driven teaching.

Introduction

The education system is changing rapidly, focusing on students’ different needs. The curricula keep changing, and new technology evolves. This means pre-service teachers must be flexible and ready to adapt their teaching methods to meet students’ needs. The key to this flexibility is reflective practice—a skill that helps teachers reflect on their teaching, learn from what happened, and make future improvements. Various types of reflections are outlined by Machost and Stains (2023). Reflection helps teachers to think clearly about unclear situations and question their usual teaching traditions (Clarà, 2015, p. 2; Robinson and Rousseau, 2018). It involves examining teaching practices, actions, intentions, and attitudes towards student learning (Chalikandy, 2014). This thinking process helps teachers develop classroom management strategies that can improve both the quality of teaching and student performance in science education. Furthermore, reflection also allows professional growth for both pre-service and experienced teachers (Pardo et al., 2015; Adams, 2024). Research shows that reflective practice helps students learn better in school science classes and can help teachers improve their teaching methods (Hume, 2009; Trauth-Nare and Buck, 2011; Çimer et al., 2013).

There is evidence to support that if teachers reflect on their real classroom experiences, they can develop new knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards teaching (Slade et al., 2019; Newell, 2025). However, if science teachers reflect alone without receiving feedback from others, they tend to experience difficulties. Their reflections tend to focus on describing teaching methods rather than rethinking their lesson plans. Studies have shown that pre-service teachers can make only surface-level observations rather than deeper, more critical reflections (Harland and Wondra, 2011; Tan et al., 2011). Researchers have focused on different approaches to improve reflection. For example, blogging was found to help teachers reflect better as compared to written assignments (Harland and Wondra, 2011). A study by Tan et al. (2011) showed that a combination of activities, such as video-based instruction with self-reflection and group blogging, can improve teachers’ reflection approaches, and 67% of the participants’ reflections were at a critical level. Pre-service science teachers need to be taught strong reflection skills during their training. The challenge of achieving deep reflection becomes clear when future teachers watch individual video recordings of other teachers. The advantages of recorded videos are that they allow pre-service teachers to pause, rewind, and closely observe specific teaching moments.

Arrastia et al. (2014) maintain that when pre-service teachers are guided during an observation of a video, they reflect more deeply than when they are not guided. This is in contrast with Tiainen et al. (2024), who advocate deeper reflections in self-guided reflective approaches. Despite the benefits of reflection in teaching, achieving deeper reflection remains difficult for pre-service teachers. Research shows that only a small percentage of participants can reflect at critical levels (Tan et al., 2011; Arrastia et al., 2014). This suggests that developing reflection skills is personal (Tiainen et al., 2018). To address these ongoing debates on teachers’ reflections, this study explored how pre-service physical science teachers in South Africa reflect when they watch video-recorded science lessons. The goal was to understand their reflective thinking as they watched the recordings. This study aimed to answer this research question: To what extent do pre-service physical science teachers in South Africa engage in critical levels of reflective practice when analysing video-recorded science lessons, and what factors influence the depth of their reflection?

Literature review

Reflection in teacher education is a dynamic and intentional cognitive process that is foundational to professional growth (Schön, 1983, 1987). It goes beyond mere experience to foster conscious learning, enabling educators to analyse their teaching practices, understand their impact, and identify areas for improvement. While some teachers may have a natural inclination towards reflection, Jaeger (2010, p. 6) argues that “generative activities are necessary to cultivate this ability” in others. She advocates for revising teacher preparation programmes to include activities such as case study analysis, journal writing, self-studies, and, importantly for this study, the audio or video recording and analysis of lessons. This latter approach is particularly insightful, as literature suggests that teachers often perceive only a fraction of what occurs in their classrooms (Sherin and van Es, 2005, p. 7; Newell, 2025).

Empirical studies reveal that pre-service teachers often begin with “technical” reflection, focusing on observable actions like classroom management and adherence to lesson plans (Harland and Wondra, 2011; Tan et al., 2011). Reflections are more challenging in STEM subjects teaching (Machost et al., 2024). The challenge lies in guiding them beyond this surface-level analysis towards critical reflection. Critical reflection transcends mere problem-solving; it involves a deeper interrogation of pedagogical rationales, a consideration of the social, ethical, and power implications of instructional choices, and an analysis of how teaching impacts diverse learners (Rodgers, 2002). In this study, ‘critical’ reflection also refers to engaging with and challenging traditional modes of practice while fostering a deep understanding of one’s teaching style (Shandomo, 2010). Achieving this deeper level of reflection is often an individualised process (Tiainen et al., 2018).

There is a broad consensus that video is a powerful tool for promoting reflection and learning due to its inherent features, such as re-playability and the ability to focus on specific moments (Sherin, 2004; Goldman et al., 2007). However, debates arise concerning the sufficiency of simply providing video to ensure deep reflection. A study by Star and Strickland (2008) emphasises that pre-service teachers must develop effective noticing skills (the ability to identify and interpret key details within video recordings) to maximise the reflective potential of these resources.

Furthermore, research indicates that guided video observation results in higher levels of reflection compared to unguided observations (Arrastia et al., 2014). This suggests that structured approaches, which challenge pre-service teachers to analyse videos in a focused manner, are more effective. While interventions such as blogging (Harland and Wondra, 2011) and collaborative group discussions (Tan et al., 2011) can foster deeper reflection, the effectiveness of individual video analysis without peer or mentor support remains a critical area of investigation. However, Tiainen et al. (2024) expound on the effectiveness of unguided reflection, in contrast with Arrastia et al. (2014).

Reflective practice is widely acknowledged as a crucial bridge between the theoretical knowledge acquired in higher education and the complex realities of classroom teaching (Zeichner, 1994; Loughran, 2002). A persistent challenge, however, is the “theory-practice gap,” where pre-service teachers struggle to apply theoretical concepts (e.g., constructivism, inquiry-based learning) to their practical observations and reflections (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Feiman-Nemser, 2012). They may intellectually grasp theories but find it difficult to identify, critically analyse, or suggest theoretically grounded alternatives when observing actual classroom practices. This gap underscores the need for targeted support to develop their pedagogical reasoning and observational skills (Hammerness et al., 2005; Zeichner and Liston, 2014). This emphasises the critical need to integrate structured reflective practices into teacher education curricula.

Effective teaching is fundamentally supported by various forms of teacher knowledge, which are intricately linked to the reflective process. Shulman (1986) famously contended that pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is paramount, describing it as a “blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organised and presented for instruction.” This “special blend” enhances professional understanding. Fernandez (2005) argues that developing both PCK and reflective practices should be central to teacher training. Grossman (1990), drawing on Shulman, further categorises teacher knowledge into subject matter knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, PCK, and contextual knowledge. Reflection is fundamentally linked to knowledge building, as it is the cognitive process through which teachers examine their practices and improve their understanding and effectiveness.

One of the most challenging topics in secondary school chemistry is the understanding of acids and bases, with students worldwide consistently struggling to master these fundamental concepts (Demircioğlu et al., 2005). The primary source of difficulty lies in students’ conceptual confusion between acid–base strength and electrolyte behaviour. For example, many students confuse weak electrolytes with weak acids, and they mistakenly believe that combining weak and strong acids produces a neutral solution (Chiu, 2004; Damanhuri et al., 2016). These persistent alternative conceptions, documented through instruments like the Acids-Bases Chemistry Achievement Test (ABCAT), demonstrate a need for more effective instructional approaches when teaching the topic (Damanhuri et al., 2016).

To address some of the learning challenges associated with acids and bases in chemistry education, researchers have proposed the use of multi-perspective teaching approaches that connect acid–base concepts to everyday life experiences to make abstract concepts more accessible (Jimenez-Liso et al., 2020). The use of effective instructional strategies requires teachers to create a learning environment where students can construct meaning and connect scientific principles to real-world applications (Demircioğlu et al., 2005; Hindman et al., 2010). According to Ültay and Calik (2016), pre-service teachers often struggle to connect acid–base theory with everyday contexts, highlighting the importance of pedagogical designs that strengthen both conceptual understanding and teaching approaches.

Analytical framework

The analytical framework provides a theoretical lens through which pre-service physical science teachers reflect on a recorded video lesson. The framework is based on Schön’s (1983, 1987) foundational work, which provided an understanding of how professionals learn through “reflection-in-action” and “reflection-on-action” and how teachers move beyond a purely technical view of practice. Töman (2007) translated Schön’s ideas into practical pedagogical frameworks, indicating how reflective practice through learning experiences fosters continuous inquiry. In this study, pre-service teachers’ reflections were analysed using the framework of Töman’s (2007) three levels of reflection, providing a continuum for categorising pre-service teachers’ reflective engagement:

Technical level (T)

The technical level of reflection is characterised by a primary focus on observable classroom behaviours and management strategies. At this level, reflective practice contains descriptive analysis of teaching experiences, often limiting observations to surface-level without deeper interpretation of the teaching activities. The reflection focuses on identifying and applying fundamental pedagogical principles necessary to achieve specific instructional objectives, emphasising the practical enactment of teaching methods and measurable outcomes (Töman, 2007; Töman et al., 2014)

Application level (U)

At the application level, reflective practice demonstrates increased analytical complexity through examination of teaching experiences to identify pedagogical challenges and to frame possible solutions. This level involves evaluating instructional outcomes against lesson objectives while incorporating personal interpretations and appropriate lesson background considerations. The reflections at this level surpass mere description of the lesson by providing rational interpretations of classroom experiences. The reflective process demonstrates a capacity to analyse the implementation of teaching methods by moving towards clear pedagogical understandings (Töman, 2007; Töman et al., 2014).

Critical level (E)

The critical level represents the most sophisticated form of reflective practice in this framework. A critical reflection involves examining the ethical, social, and political implications of teaching decisions and actions (Terrell and Sherman, 2008). This level requires questioning fundamental pedagogical expectations, challenging conventional teaching methodologies, and considering broader issues of educational equity within the socio-political context of schooling (Shandomo, 2010; Yesilbursa, 2011). Reflection at this level demands an interrogation of not only the effectiveness of teaching practices but also their underlying philosophical foundations and their potential impact on diverse learners and society as a whole.

Methodology

Context of the study

This paper reports on a cross-sectional, large-scale South African research project linked to the Teacher Choices in Action (TCIA) programme. The TCIA project was developed as an online supplement for work-integrated learning during the pandemic. This was necessitated by the inability to conduct school-based face-to-face practicals. This project facilitated learning-from-work across diverse contexts, and its research component explored how pre-service teachers describe, analyse, and interpret observed teaching practices based on watching a video on acids and bases. The data analysed in this paper were generated from pre-service teachers’ reflections after watching four prescribed videos on different physical science topics aligned with the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) for physical science. This study reported on the videos related to acids and bases. Within the South African curriculum framework, the acids and bases topic is taught in Grades 10–12. This includes topics like redox reactions, oxidation numbers, and multiple theoretical perspectives, including Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry theories, with students expected to identify conjugate acid–base pairs and ampholytes (Department of Education, 2011). Given the global emphasis on understanding content knowledge and pedagogical strategies in this topic, this study investigated pre-service physical science teachers’ reflective practices after individually observing a video-recorded acids and bases lesson.

Research design

This study employed a qualitative, case study methodology, grounded in the interpretivist paradigm. This approach was chosen to examine the reflections of pre-service science teachers after observing a video-recorded science lesson on acids and bases. We adopted an intrinsic case study approach, as we were genuinely interested in understanding the case itself – the reflections of pre-service science teachers—and gaining deeper insight into their actions and views of reality. As Creswell and Poth (2017) and Baxter and Jack (2008) highlight, qualitative case studies are particularly suited for examining complex phenomena within their natural contexts.

Data collection and instrument

From the numerous lessons observed within the TCIA project, this study focused on pre-service physical science teachers’ reflections on a single video-recorded Grade 11 online lesson on acids and bases. This lesson was chosen for its direct alignment with the objectives and curriculum of our teacher training programmes, offering focused insights into pedagogical considerations pertinent to their professional development. After watching the lesson, pre-service teachers were required to submit a reflection report based on the following criteria:

1. Summary of the lesson

2. How the teacher promoted learning in the lesson

3. Personal comments on the lesson

Participants and sampling

The overall TCIA programme involved 15,996 pre-service teachers from 24 Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in 2020, all of whom provided informed consent for their responses to be used in the research project. This case study, used 79 participants (45 PGCE and 34 BEd pre-service physical science teachers) who were purposively selected from four HEIs. The sample was pragmatic, and carefully selected for depth of insight rather than statistical generalisability. This selection focused on pre-service teachers specialising in physical science at the senior secondary school level. Participants were drawn from both the Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) and Bachelor of Education (BEd) programmes to explore reflective practices across different teacher training durations and prior academic backgrounds. PGCE students had completed a bachelor’s degree in physical sciences and were enrolled in a one-year programme, while BEd students were in their fourth and final year, majoring in physical science. This selection ensured that participants had observed and reflected on the same physical science video-recorded lesson on acids and bases, a shared experience that formed the basis of the data analysed. For anonymity, participants were automatically assigned random 5-digit numbers. The sample was strategically chosen for analytical relevance to represent the two key teacher education pathways, PGCE and BEd, and the scarce-skills subject, Physical Science, and mitigated single-institution bias by drawing from four HEIs. This representative sample enabled a comparison of how varying levels of practical experience influence the depth of reflection, making the findings relevant to the South African teacher education population.

Data analysis

The data were analysed using qualitative content analysis, guided by Töman’s (2007) three levels of reflection: Technical, Application, and Critical. This framework served as the coding structure. Two researchers initially coded the reflections independently from a sub-sample of five participants. Then, they convened a consensus meeting to discuss the codes, address any interpretive discrepancies, and agree on a consistent application of Töman’s levels of reflection. This process established the necessary inter-rater agreement. Following this, one researcher applied the final agreed-upon coding to the remaining dataset to ensure consistency. The coding aimed to categorise pre-service physical science teachers’ reflections into technical, application, and critical categories.

The key features of each aspect of the analytical framework are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Table 1. Analytical framework: Töman’s three levels of reflection on practice.

Results

The results of the reflections of the 79 participants from four HEIs in South Africa are indicated in Table 2.

Table 2

Table 2. Levels of reflection.

Scaffolding was provided in the form of basic prompts, such as asking participants to summarise the lesson, and to provide personal reflections on how the teacher promoted learning. The reflective practices of the 79 pre-service physical science teachers from four South African HEIs were analysed and are summarised in Table 2. The distribution of reflection levels indicates different patterns across the Bachelor of Education (BEd) and Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) cohorts. A notable observation is the higher incidence of ‘no reflection’ among PGCE participants (14 out of 45), suggesting that this cohort encountered greater difficulty with the reflective task than BEd students (4 out of 34). This aligns with the PGCE programme, which is shorter and intensive and offers less prior classroom exposure. This might affect their levels of reflective tasks, which are substandard than those of BEd students, who often have more integrated practical experience.

Notably, what is common to reflections across both cohorts is congregated at the technical and application levels, with 16 BEd students and 18 PGCE students demonstrating these combined reflective abilities. Fewer participants reached the critical level of reflection, although both BEd (12) and PGCE (11) students demonstrated deeper engagement, with the ability to evaluate teaching practices and consider broader pedagogical abilities at both levels.

Most of the ‘no reflections’ were recorded by the PGCE pre-service physical science teachers, indicating that the PGCE pre-service physical science teachers experienced difficulties with the task. It is also evident that the PGCE pre-service physical science teachers’ reflections were at the technical and application levels (18 out of 45).

The teacher prepared his lesson well. Even as a future teacher, I've benefited a lot from this lesson. I will continue watching more videos here. I will also download them, as they will be helpful shortly. (12 179, BEd Student).

The educator covered all aspects expected to be covered, especially at the end of the lesson, when he was answering questions about formulas required and bringing about the end products of acid and base to be salt. (20 786, PGCE student).

It is evident from both comments that participants’ reflections only focus on describing what they observed in the video. Both participants believed that the lesson was well-received. However, the PGCE participant focused on content knowledge while the BEd participant recognised the latest trends in staying abreast in one’s profession through watching relevant videos. The second group of students’ reflections was coded as technical and application level, and the following comments illustrate their views:

In his introduction, he stated the objectives and then explained what acids and bases are. The teacher began by explaining what an acid and a base are according to Arrhenius, and provided some examples to help learners understand. He continued by explaining what an acid and a base are according to Bronsted. He also gave examples. After that, he took a break for learners to ask questions. (Technical level). Make it meaningful, personal, and relevant, and seek opportunities to collaborate with experts and other students across town or the world. To develop a step-by-step strategy for complex, conceptually difficult, or multi-step academic operations, he broke them down into simple steps. (Application level) (11 446, BEd student).

I applaud the teacher for how he taught the learners, the way he delivered the knowledge, and how he conducted the lesson. I liked how he commenced the lesson by giving a background introduction of key terms in the topic ‘Acids and Bases’ (Technical level). This was a good way to begin a lesson, which allows learners to understand why they have to learn what they are about to be taught before they get to engage with the knowledge content (Application level) (20 866, PGCE student).

The comments made by these participants go beyond just describing what happened in class and include a reflection on the teacher’s pedagogical content knowledge. They referred to using a step-by-step approach and how the teacher could make the content easy through scaffolding. Participants’ comments indicated that they interpreted the lesson’s teaching and learning based on their previous experiences and knowledge. A closer analysis of the quotes reveals that BEd participants provided detailed explanations, extending beyond simply referencing content knowledge, in their reflections. They highlighted how students understood the lesson objectives. The PGCE participant primarily focused on evaluating the lesson, stating that it started well. The BEd participant elaborated on the presence of clear objectives and detailed several teaching strategies that the PGCE participant did not mention. These strategies included scaffolding, collaboration, and the pedagogy of pausing. These observations are supported by the fact that BEd students have experience working with learners in the classroom. The last group of students’ comments was coded at the technical, application, and critical levels, as illustrated in the following excerpt:

The teacher started the lesson by defining an acid and a base in terms of Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry theories. No demonstration occurred. The teacher defined Acids and Bases in terms of Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry theories and then provided examples of each. He continued with conjugate acid-base pairs, pH, pOH, and how to calculate pH. (Technical level). The teacher only used one teaching strategy, whereas there were other ways he could have approached it, such as demonstrating lab work. (Application level). Even if the lesson was nice, it was not accommodating, and some learners were left behind. I feel like online lessons like this were not fair enough (Critical level) (20 619, BEd student).

The teacher explained the lesson objective very clearly. He used the examples as much as she could (Technical level). The teacher used different teaching methods, like group discussion and the Socratic method, to make sure that learners understand and participate. Lesson resources were also used (Application level). It is learner-centred. Learners feel equal, free, and respected as they are equally treated (Critical level) (10 708, PGCE student).

From the excerpt, it is evident that when pre-service physical science teachers reflected at the technical level, they were able to describe what happened in the lesson. When participants reflected on the application level, they assessed the suitability of the teaching strategies. Furthermore, participants’ reflections at the critical level focused on learners’ issues that were related to teaching and learning. Additionally, both participants stated CK in their reflections. However, the BEd participant expanded the knowledge to integrate resources and the practical module content that was absent in the reflection of the PGCE participant.

The results from Table 2 are illustrated further in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Pre-service physical science teachers’ level of reflections on an acids and bases lesson (N = 79).

Figure 1 shows that the PGCE group had the highest number of non-responses to this question. This might suggest that this group of participants found the task of the individual watching the video and writing a reflection difficult. Nevertheless, the results in Figure 1 illustrate that some participants in the PGCE and BEd programme were able to reflect at all levels, namely, the technical, application, and critical levels. This suggests that some of the participants’ PCK on acids and bases is developed.

Results in Figure 1 also indicated that four participants’ (2 BEd and 2 PGCE) reflections were mostly descriptive of the video-recorded science lesson on acids and bases, and this type of reflection was classified at the technical level. This suggests that these participants found the task of observing the video lessons challenging. Further analysis of the responses shows that participants’ reflections focused more on the pedagogy rather than on the content of the acids and bases lesson.

The results indicate that 34 participants’ (16 BEd and 18 PGCE) reflections were coded at the technical and application levels. This suggests that the levels of reflection are not discrete and that the development of their reflective skills is ongoing. It was encouraging to note that some of the participants were able to reflect across the three levels of reflection suggested by Töman (2007).

Discussion

This study explored pre-service physical science teachers’ reflections on a video-recorded lesson on acids and bases. This topic is essential within the South African high school curriculum. Our findings confirmed that video-recorded lessons serve as a valuable pedagogical tool for stimulating reflective practice and professional growth among pre-service teachers while revealing nuanced insights into their developing pedagogical reasoning. The observed patterns in reflective depth, particularly across different pre-service teacher cohorts, highlight the utilisation of video observation as a stimulus for learning. Our analysis revealed distinct patterns in the depth and focus of reflections that differentiated between PGCE and BEd cohorts, addressing our research question. Participants across both programmes demonstrated a developing level of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) through their ability to critically analyse teaching decisions related to content representation and to student understanding (Shulman, 1987). Significant differences were observed in the manner in which participants engaged with the task, with PGCE participants exhibiting a higher incidence of no discernible reflection on pedagogical aspects. This observation implies that this group of students found the task difficult, which could be due to the low scaffolding and the basic prompts not encouraging critical reflection. The higher incidence of ‘No reflection’ by PGCE participants could also be attributed to the intensive PGCE programme and its limited practical plan, which made the unguided, individual reflection task overwhelming. This resonates with previous studies that outline contradicting levels of reflection upon guided and unguided reflection (Tiainen et al., 2024; Arrastia et al., 2014). The findings suggest that while basic structured prompts were provided, they lacked explicit, high-level guidance needed to equip participants to reflect at the critical level. This finding highlights a critical area for targeted pedagogical support for PGCE students, as their programme offers limited practical classroom exposure compared to BEd counterparts. Their limited prior teaching experiences, often constrained to short practical teaching periods, likely contribute to a less developed schema for identifying and deconstructing complex classroom interactions (Korthagen and Kessels, 1999; Schön, 1983).

In contrast, BEd participants demonstrated more pronounced reflections, suggesting more comprehensive and integrated engagement with both subject matter knowledge and pedagogical considerations, likely cultivated through their extended and scaffolded practical teaching experience. These differentiated findings regarding cohort reflective depth contribute significantly to ongoing pedagogical discourse concerning initial teacher education models. Our observation of more pronounced reflections among BEd participants provides a nuanced counterpoint to studies suggesting a uniform impact of video-based reflection. For instance, our results contrast with those of Brouwer et al. (2017), who reported less encouragement for reflective practice from video viewing among pre-service teachers. This difference could be attributed to differences in pedagogical framing of the video observation task, which did not take into account the different cohorts of students and the nature of their programmes. Our findings suggest that, with appropriate scaffolding and integrated programmatic support, video observation can be a powerful catalyst for deeper reflection, especially for those with more accumulated practical experience.

A persistent theme across all participants was their predominant focus on observable pedagogical actions of the classroom teacher, such as classroom management, instructional strategies, and questioning techniques, rather than explicit and systematic application of theoretical concepts and content knowledge acquired during their university programmes. This consistent emphasis on surface-level pedagogical moves, at the expense of deeper engagement with underlying educational theories or subject-specific pedagogical principles, points to a significant theory-practice gap. This breach may be attributed to low level reflections observed in STEM subjects (Machost et al., 2024). Findings highlight that the lack of critical scaffolding resulted in pre-service teachers engaging in surface-level reflection rooted in technical and descriptive observation, highlighting the theory-practice gap. This disconnect is particularly concerning because the transformation of raw experience into meaningful professional knowledge usually depends on the conscious integration of theoretical frameworks for interpretation and analysis, as articulated by McAlpine et al. (1999) and consistent with experiential learning models, such as Kolb’s (1984). Our findings suggest that pre-service teachers struggle to bridge the gap between abstract educational theories, such as learning theories, assessment principles, and specific science education pedagogies, and their practical manifestation in real classroom contexts. This highlights a crucial area for future pedagogical intervention in teacher education programmes: explicit strategies for scaffolding the application of theoretical knowledge to consistent classroom observations should be developed and implemented across programmes. Teacher education programs may incorporate intensive reflection on practice modules within the BEd and PGCE training for a nuanced reflection experience of the graduates.

Conclusion

This study provides valuable insights into the nature of pre-service physical science teachers’ reflections stimulated by video-recorded lessons, a pedagogical tool of growing importance in teacher education. Our findings underline the value of video observation not only in fostering reflective practice but also in discerning nuanced patterns in pedagogical reasoning across different pre-service teacher cohorts. While video proved generally effective in prompting reflection, distinct differences emerged, with BEd participants demonstrating more consistent critical engagement compared to their PGCE counterparts. This discrepancy is likely influenced by their differing levels of practical teaching experience, as proposed by the programme. Significantly, the prevalent focus on observable pedagogical actions over explicit theoretical application revealed a persistent theory-practice gap. This highlights an urgent need for teacher education programmes to implement more deliberate scaffolding strategies that help pre-service teachers to consciously integrate academic theory with practical classroom observations. By addressing this gap, we can better prepare future science educators to move beyond shallow analysis towards truly critical reflective practice, eventually improving the quality of science teaching and learning in South Africa.

Recommendations

This study recommends that teacher education programmes, especially those preparing pre-service physical science teachers, incorporate structured and guided video-based reflection activities. This integration is essential for fostering deeper pedagogical reasoning and accelerating professional growth. The distinct reflective patterns observed between PGCE and BEd cohorts highlight the need for increased practical teaching experience and targeted reflective support for PGCE students. The teacher education curricula should clearly link theoretical frameworks and subject-specific pedagogies with authentic classroom observations and reflective tasks. The guided video reflection, supported by specific reflective prompts and collaborative discussions, can encourage critical engagement with both the subject matter and its associated pedagogy. This integrated approach will significantly enhance the development of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and promote a more meaningful, theory-informed reflective practice across all teacher preparation pathways.

Limitations of the study

This study on pre-service teachers has several key limitations. The research relied on self-reported written reflections, which may contain biases and not fully capture teachers’ actual thinking processes. The scope was narrowed by examining reflections on a single chemistry lesson on acids and bases, so the findings may not apply to other subjects or teaching contexts. While 79 participants from four institutions were included, this sample may not represent all South African teacher education programmes. The specific reflection questions given to participants might have influenced their responses towards focusing on observable teaching behaviours. Finally, as a one-time snapshot study, it does not show how reflective skills develop over time through ongoing experience and professional growth.

Data availability statement

The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because this data was based on a big project and cannot be shared. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to c2liYW5kYWRAdWt6bi5hYy56YQ==.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the University of the Witwatersrand-PROTOCOL NUMBER-H19/09/47. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

MT: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Investigation. DS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Investigation. JN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Investigation.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Acknowledgments

The Teacher Choices in Action module was developed by a group of teacher educators from different South African universities, under the leadership of Prof. Lee Rusznyak. The module and research project form part of the Teaching and Learning Development Capacity Improvement Programme (TLDCIP) that is implemented through a partnership between the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and the European Union.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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