Personal and environment factors and participation as mediators between high school type and school quality of life and wellbeing

Introduction: Alternative schools support students with academic or behavioral challenges through flexible, personalized approaches. These educational environments are closely linked to personal and environmental factors that influence adolescents’ participation in daily activities, which are crucial to their school quality of life (QoL) and wellbeing.

Methods: This study examined the effect of personal and environmental factors and participation as mediators between high school type, school QoL and wellbeing, among 103 students attending alternative schools and 156 peers in traditional schools across Israel.

Results: Alternative school students showed significantly higher motivation and their higher sense of school relatedness approached significance. School type had a positive direct effect on motivation and school QoL. Motivation also mediated indirect effects on out-of-school participation and overall wellbeing. School QoL was shaped by school type, school relatedness, and perceived social support.

Discussion: These findings highlight the effectiveness of supportive, student-centered school environments in enhancing students’ wellbeing, suggesting that incorporating alternative education principles into mainstream settings may improve school QoL and wellbeing.

Introduction

Adolescence is a crucial period of brain development that encompasses biological, emotional, cognitive, and social changes (Blakemore and Mills, 2014; Hagan et al., 2017). Adolescents experience greater peer influences, which become their primary sources of intimacy and support but also heighten emotional instability and identity exploration (Lam et al., 2014; Syed and McLean, 2017). These developmental changes may contribute to disengagement from school, underachievement, reduced attendance, and even dropout (Bae, 2020; Phillippi et al., 2022; Shamrova et al., 2024). Such academic challenges may diminish students’ wellbeing and quality of life (QoL, Borkowski and Thorpe, 2023; Snyder et al., 2021).

Alternative schools have been established to address the individual needs of students who were expelled or dropped out from traditional schools, due to academic and/or behavioral problems (Shamrova et al., 2024; Rubens et al., 2019; Perzigian et al., 2017). Alternative schools serve as a type of educational intervention program aimed to enhance students’ re-engagement and improve their academic and behavioral skills (Lagana-Riordan et al., 2011; Lehr et al., 2009), while addressing their social and emotional needs (Ballard and Bender, 2022; Bascia and Fine, 2012). To achieve these goals, alternative schools frequently adopt flexible pedagogical methods and student-centered curricula while maintaining lower teacher-student ratios. These approaches foster more personalized and supportive relationships between students and teachers (Phillippi et al., 2022; Shamrova et al., 2024; Ballard and Bender, 2022; Mills and McCluskey, 2018; Wilkerson et al., 2016). Despite the increase in the number of alternative schools (Lagana-Riordan et al., 2011; Ballard and Bender, 2022), and the acknowledged importance of participation in daily activities and wellbeing of students attending alternative schools, academic knowledge concerning these topics is limited (Wilkerson et al., 2016).

The bio-psychosocial framework of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF; WHO, World Health Organization, 2001) emphasizes participation as essential for development, defining it as “involvement in a life situation” (World Health Organization, 2007, p. 9). Participation is multidimensional, involving both objective aspects (e.g., frequency) and subjective aspects (e.g., perceived importance and satisfaction). It is influenced by personal factors such as motivation and school relatedness, as well as the environmental contexts of school, home, and community (Coster et al., 2012; Granlund, 2013; Mikami et al., 2017; Van Ryzin et al., 2009). Higher levels of school participation are associated with better academic outcomes, lower dropout and delinquency rates, and increased social engagement in adulthood (Oberle et al., 2019).

Similar to participation, wellbeing is a multidimensional concept, encompassing factors such as economic status, peer relationships, and developmental opportunities (Ben-Arieh and Frønes, 2007). It reflects individuals’ overall experience across life domains and often includes “life satisfaction.” While wellbeing and QoL share similarities, they differ somewhat. The WHO defines QoL as an individual’s perception of their position in life within the context of cultural values, goals, and expectations (World Health Organization Quality of Life Group, 1995), emphasizing its subjective nature (Baum and Christiansen, 2005; Weintraub and Bar-Haim Erez, 2009). Since adolescents spend much of their time at school, examining school-related QoL is essential (Coster, 1998). This aspect of QoL is shaped by both positive and negative experiences during participation in everyday school activities (Karatzias et al., 2001; Malin and Linnakylä, 2001).

The Person-Environment-Occupation-Performance model (PEOP, Baum and Christiansen, 2005) is a theoretical framework that may explain the interrelationships between these concepts, and assist in understanding the implications of students’ participation in daily activities on their overall wellbeing and QoL (Bass et al., 2017). This assumption is supported by research demonstrating a positive association between participation in diverse activities and overall wellbeing including life satisfaction, both in the general population and among adolescents (Konu et al., 2002; Laurence, 2021; Law, 2002). In addition, the PEOP model asserts that an individual’s participation is influenced by personal and environmental factors, and the interactions between them (Baum et al., 2015).

The PEOP model also postulates that the intrinsic motivation of individuals contributes to their will or ability to engage in meaningful occupations in order to explore their environment (Christiansen et al., 2015). This assumption aligns with the multidimensional self-determination theory (SDT), which posits that fulfilling the basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence is essential for overall wellbeing (Deci and Ryan, 1985; Deci and Ryan, 2000). Autonomy refers to the sense of choice and freedom from external pressures, as well as the ability to initiate and regulate one’s actions. Relatedness involves forming secure, emotionally meaningful social connections. Competence pertains to individuals’ belief in their capacity to effectively perform necessary actions and utilize control strategies (Ryan et al., 1994).

One of the personal factors often attributed to students attending alternative schools is low motivation in general, and especially low achievement in relation to school (Gilman et al., 2006; Guo, 2018; Kiefer et al., 2015). This is expressed by a lack of relatedness in general, and particularly to school; a perceived lack of autonomy; and inadequate self-competence. All of these may affect adolescent self-concept and self-esteem, especially in academic performance (Preckel and Brunner, 2015). Additionally, low motivation may affect these students’ willingness to exert effort in their studies. Low motivation was also found to affect individuals’ participation and wellbeing (Van Batenburg-Eddes and Jolles, 2013). Therefore, students attending alternative schools who experience low motivation may participate less, and may report lower overall wellbeing (Rezende et al., 2017) and school QoL than their peers in traditional schools.

Based on these theoretical frameworks, a conceptual framework was developed that may shed light on the factors mediating the relationship between school type and school QoL as well as overall wellbeing among high school students (see Figure 1). Based on the PEOP model and the SDT, it is suggested that personal factors, including motivation (autonomy, relatedness, competence) and school relatedness, and an environmental factor (social support), as well as participation in both in-school and out-of-school activities mediate the relationship between school type and both school QoL and overall wellbeing. An additional premise depicted in the conceptual framework is that there are associations between personal and environmental factors as well as participation.

Figure 1

Figure 1. The interrelations between personal and environmental factors, participation in daily activities, school QoL, and overall wellbeing among high school students.

Current study

Despite the recognized importance of adolescents’ participation in daily activities, both in and out of school, relatively few studies have focused on this topic among adolescents. Existing research has reported positive correlations between participation, wellbeing, and school QoL (Eccles and Roeser, 2011; Fredricks and Eccles, 2008; Katja et al., 2002). However, no studies were found that specifically examined the effectiveness of alternative schools designed for students with underachievement and behavioral problems on their wellbeing or QoL. This gap in the literature highlights the need for further research in this area. Additionally, there is limited information on whether personal and environmental factors, along with participation in daily activities, mediate the relationship between school type and both school QoL and overall wellbeing.

The current study was based on findings from a previous study (Lavie-Pitaro et al., 2025), which identified differences in participation in school and out-of-school activities, as well as differences in school QoL, between students attending traditional schools versus alternative schools. The overarching goal of this study was to examine personal factors (motivation and school relatedness), an environmental factor (social support), and participation in daily activities, exploring their roles in mediating between the high school type (alternative vs. traditional), and students’ school QoL, as well as their overall wellbeing. Specifically, the study aimed: (a) to compare high school students attending alternative vs. traditional schools across Israel with respect to their personal and environmental factors; (b) to examine the correlations among personal and environmental factors, participation characteristics relating to in-school and out-of-school activities, school QoL, and overall wellbeing in both groups; and (c) to examine whether personal and environmental factors, as well as participation characteristics mediate the relationships between school type and both school QoL and overall wellbeing, using structured equation modeling (SEM).

Given the unique characteristics of alternative schools, which are intended for students with underachievement and behavioral problems, the study hypothesized that alternative school students would report lower motivation, lower school relatedness, and higher social support. Finally, it was expected that personal, environmental, and participation factors would correlate with school QoL and overall wellbeing, and that these factors would mediate the relationships between school type and both school QoL and overall wellbeing (see Figure 1).

Materials and methods

Study design and participants

This cross-sectional study used a structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. The participants included 259 students in grades 9–11, who were recruited through convenience sampling from ten high schools across Israel, five of them alternative schools. Inclusion criteria encompassed both parental consent and student assent to participate. In addition, participants in both groups were in their first year of attendance at the current educational setting. Students were excluded if they achieved a score below the 10th percentile on the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM, Raven and Court, 1977) for further details, see the Measures section. As seen in Table 1, the sample consisted of two groups of high school students: (a) students attending alternative schools (AS; n = 103, Mage = 15.40, SD = 0.87), and (b) students attending traditional general education schools (TS; n = 156, Mage = 15.14, SD = 0.59).

Table 1

Table 1. Participants’ characteristics by group.

The alternative schools are public and non-religious institutions operating under the supervision of the Ministry of Education. These schools are designed to serve adolescents who failed or did not fit in traditional schools, whether due to academic or behavioral challenges. While the alternative schools adhere to the national core curriculum, they differ from traditional settings by providing small classes, individualized instruction, flexible curricular frameworks, and intensive social–emotional support. Their overarching aim is to enable students to earn a matriculation certificate and to foster the skills and competencies necessary for successful transition to adulthood. All the teachers in the alternative schools are trained by the institute in implementing the educational program. The five traditional schools in this study were matched to the alternative schools by residential areas, to control for possible overall SES of the cities and community participation opportunities.

A minimal sample size of 200 was suggested by the maximum-likelihood classification method and the withdrawal rate according to the asymptotically distribution-free method (Kyriazos, 2018). Out of the 280 students who, along with their parents, consented to participate in the study, 17 students (6.07%; 11 AS and 5 TS) did not complete the questionnaires. In addition, one student from the AS group was not permitted by his parents to participate. Four students (1.43%; 1 AS and 3 TS), were excluded because their scores were below the 10^th percentile on the RSPM (Raven and Court, 1977), leaving 259 students in the study.

Procedure

This research was approved by the institutional research board (IRB) of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (No. 02102022) and the Israell Ministry of Education (No. 12597). Following approval, 12 high school principals were approached with an explanation of the study’s objectives and procedures, and 10 agreed to participate. Next, homeroom teachers sent explanatory letters to the parents to obtain their consent. Then, two occupational therapists (the first author and a graduate student) visited classes during the first 2 months of the school year. The teachers briefed the students in advance about the study’s objectives, allowing them to choose whether to participate. Students who opted not to participate in the study were provided an alternative educational activity at this time. The participating students completed the study battery independently in the classroom, which took approximately 2 hours.

Measures

Demographic and inclusion criteria

Demographic questionnaire

A self-report questionnaire was developed specifically for this study, for the purpose of collecting information on the socio-demographic characteristics of the students, including educational settings, age, gender, and parents’ education.

Raven’s standard progressive matrices (RSPM)

The RSPM (Raven and Court, 1977) is a norm-referenced test designed to examine general nonverbal intelligence among individuals 12 years and older (Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2017). It includes five sets of 12 items each. Every correct answer is allotted 1 point, and raw scores (ranging between 0 and 60) are transformed to percentile scores. The RSPM has good internal reliability (α = 0.88), and good average content, convergent validity and criterion-related validity (Raven and Court, 1998; Pind et al., 2003). In this study the RSPM was used to determine the exclusion criterion.

Personal factors

Basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration scale (BPNSFS)

The BPNSFS is based on the self-determination theory. It is a standardized self-report questionnaire designed for adolescents and adults, which addresses both satisfaction and frustration relating to basic psychological needs (Autonomy, Relatedness, Competence), in general, in a person’s life. It includes 24 statements, for which the individuals mark their level of agreement rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “completely disagree;” 5 = “completely agree”). The scores are summed for each psychological need separately. A higher average score indicates a better realization of the basic psychological needs. The BPNSFS has demonstrated acceptable internal consistency; α = 0.81 for Autonomy; α = 0.81 for Relatedness; and α = 0.84 for Competence (Chen et al., 2015). In addition, convergent and discriminant validity were established (Henseler et al., 2015). In this study, acceptable internal consistency was found for Autonomy (α = 0.64), Relatedness (α = 0.80), and Competence (α = 0.80).

Psychological sense of school membership- relatedness in the school context (PSSM)

The PSSM is a standard self-report questionnaire designed for youth from 10 years of age and older, in which the person is asked to assess their feelings of relatedness in the school context (Goodenow, 1993). It includes 18 statements for which the students indicate how much the sentence is true for them, rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “not at all true;” 5 = “completely true”). The scores are summed to attain a total score, where the higher the score, the higher the sense of relatedness. The PSSM was found to have acceptable to high internal consistency (α = 0.77–0.88) and construct validity in the adolescent population (Goodenow, 1993). For this study, four questions related to the relationship between the student and the teachers were removed, since they coincided with the Quality of Life in School Questionnaire (QoLS). After their removal, high internal consistency was found (α = 0.86).

Environmental factor

Multidimensional scale of perceived social support (MSPSS)

The MSPSS is a 12-item self-report questionnaire designed for adolescents and adults, which measures individuals’ perceptions of the social support they receive from three sources: family (4 items), friends (4 items), and significant others (4 items). Each item is rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = “very strongly disagree;” 7 = “very strongly agree”). A mean score is calculated for the entire MSPSS, and for each source of support, where a higher mean score indicates more social support. The MSPSS was found to have high internal consistency for the entire questionnaire (α = 0.88), as well as for the three components: family (α = 0.87), friends (α = 0.85), and significant others (α = 0.91, Zimet et al., 1988). Convergent validity was also established. In this study, high internal consistency was found (α = 0.92).

Participation

Adolescents’ participation questionnaire (APQ)

The APQ was developed for this study as a self-report questionnaire, with the purpose of determining high school students’ objective and subjective participation characteristics in-school and out-of-school activities. The APQ includes 28 activities divided into two sections: School Activities (6 items; e.g., “Active participation in recess,” “Participation in learning activities”) and Out-of-School Activities (22 items relating to home and community; e.g., “Driving lessons,” “Paid work”). Each item is scored according to three scales: (1) Frequency, rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = “never;” 4 = “always”); (2) Importance, rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = “not at all;” 4 = “very much”); and (3) Satisfaction with participation in the activity, rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = “not at all satisfied,” 4 = “very much”). For each scale in each section, a mean score is calculated separately. Higher scores mean higher participation in daily activities.

The development process of the APQ included content validity, which was established by two expert panels consisting of 10 educators and therapists working with adolescents, and 10 adolescents. Acceptable overall internal consistency was found for the APQ’s Frequency scale (α = 0.70), and test–retest reliability over 2 weeks (n = 22) demonstrated medium to excellent reliability in both sections (ICC = 0.42–0.92). In the current study, the internal consistency for the Frequency scale was found to be sufficient (α = 0.74). Consistency was calculated only for this scale because students marked the Importance and Satisfaction scales as irrelevant if activities were “never” performed. Consequently, there was a considerable amount of missing data in the other scales, limiting the internal consistency calculations.

Wellbeing and quality of life

Huebner’s student life satisfaction scale (SLSS)

The SLSS is a 7-item standard self-report questionnaire, designed to measure the subjective life satisfaction of students aged 8–18 years. Each item is rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = “Strongly disagree;” 6 = “Strongly agree”). A final score is derived by summing the items, ranging from 7 (“low satisfaction”) to 42 (“high satisfaction”). A higher score means higher life satisfaction. Internal consistency of the SLSS was found to be high (α = 0.84). Moderate test–retest reliability (ICC = 0.74) was found over an interval of 1–2 weeks (Huebner, 1991). In this study, high internal consistency was found (α = 0.83). As mentioned above, life satisfaction is considered a component of subjective wellbeing; the SLSS was therefore used to measure overall wellbeing.

Quality of life in school questionnaire (QoLS)

The QoLS is a self-report questionnaire that evaluates students’ perceptions of their QoL in school, designed for students from 8 to 18 years of age. It includes 36 items rated on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = “never true;” 4 = “always true”). The questionnaire is divided into four domains: (1) Physical environment of the classroom and school; (2) Psycho-social factors; (3) Student-teacher relationship; and (4) Positive feelings toward school. A mean score is calculated for the total QoLS scores, as well as for each domain separately. High scores represent high QoL. The QoLS has demonstrated acceptable construct validity (Weintraub and Bar-Haim Erez, 2009; McIsaac et al., 2017) and content validity, as well as medium internal consistency for all domains (α = 0.64–0.73). In this study, acceptable to high internal consistency was found for the total and the domain scores (α = 0.74–0.84).

Data analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the SPSS statistical software (version 29, IBM Corp, 2016). Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the demographic characteristics. T-test analyses were used to compare demographic characteristics between the study groups. A normality test was performed for all the questionnaires within each of the study groups separately, using skewness and kurtosis tests, and it was found that all of them within the acceptable limit range, ±2.58 in each of the groups in the motivation (BPNSFS) and the school relatedness (PSSM) measures. Therefore, M/ANOVA tests were used to compare the groups on these measures. By contrast, the social support measure (MSPSS) was not normally distributed; therefore, the Mann–Whitney test was used to examine group differences. Spearman and Pearson correlations were applied to examine associations between variables, followed by a false discovery rate (FDR) test to correct for multiple comparisons. To examine the personal factors, environmental factors, and participation characteristics as mediators, SEM analysis was conducted using AMOS software (Bae, 2014).

Results

To address this potential confounder of demographic variables on the study’s findings, the groups were compared with respect to students’ age, gender, neurodevelopmental disabilities and parental education (Table 1). Results showed no significant differences between groups regarding age [t(170.8) = 20.7, p = 0.065]. By contrast, significant differences were found regarding gender distribution [χ²(1) = 10.53, p = 0.001], formal diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disabilities [χ²(1) = 19.78, p < 0.001], and mean years of parental education [mother’s education years; t(197.69) = −6.57, p < 0.001, father’s education years; t(174.18) = −4.12, p < 0.001]. However, no significant correlations (p > 0.05) were found between parental education and formal diagnosis of NDD and the dependent variables. Therefore, age, parental education and diagnosis of NDD were not considered as confounding variables. On the other hand, although no significant gender difference was found with respect to overall wellbeing [t(251) = 0.51, p = 0.61], a significant gender difference was found with respect to school QoL [t(251) = 2.52, p = 0.01]. Therefore, gender was incorporated as a covariate in all multivariate analyses.

Groups’ comparisons

To meet the first study objective, the groups were compared with respect to personal and environmental factors. First, personal factors were compared. Results showed a significant multivariate group difference in motivation, with a large effect size [F(3, 255) = 3369.98, p < 0.001, η²p = 0.97]. Follow-up analysis showed that the mean score of the AS group was significantly higher than the TS group in the autonomy and competence subscales, but not in relatedness (See Table 2). In addition, the mean school relatedness score of the AS group was somewhat higher than the TS group, but the differences only approached significance. Additionally, using the Mann–Whitney test, groups were compared in their reported social support. Contrary to the expected results, there were no significant group differences in students’ perception of social support.

Table 2

Table 2. Groups differences in personal and environmental factors.

Correlations among the study factors

For the second objective, the relationships between all study variables were examined in both study groups using Pearson or Spearman tests, depending on variable distribution. As shown in Table 3, significant positive correlations emerged among personal factors, environmental factors, participation characteristics, school QoL, and overall wellbeing. Within the personal factors, autonomy, competence, and relatedness were strongly interrelated, and each was moderately associated with school relatedness. Social support, an environmental factor, showed positive associations with all personal factors, particularly relatedness, as well as school relatedness. In-school participation variables were strongly and positively inter-correlated. In addition, they were also positively correlated with school QoL. School relatedness demonstrated the strongest links with school QoL, while competence and autonomy showed the highest correlations with overall wellbeing. All together, these findings suggest that supportive personal and environmental resources foster meaningful participation, which in turn contributes to students’ quality of school life and general wellbeing.

Table 3

Table 3. Correlations between personal factors and environmental factors, participation characteristics, school QoL and overall wellbeing in both groups.

Mediation of personal and environmental factors and participation

In applying the last study objective, a SEM analysis was used. The SEM model (Figure 2) includes standardized path coefficients, with only the significant coefficients reported. Overall, the goodness-of-fit of the SEM model was satisfactory: Chi-square (χ²[63] = 136.309, p < 0.001), Comparative Fit Index (CFI; = 0.950), Normed Fit Index (NFI; = 0.912), Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; = 0.067), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI; = 0.927). Although the Chi-square was significant, due to its sensitivity to sample size, the normed chi-square (χ²/63 = 136.309) suggested a good model fit, indicating that the model adequately represents the data (Crawford and Lamarre, 2021; Hu and Bentler, 1999; Tabachnick et al., 2013).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Structural equation modeling between all variables. Chi-square=136.309 (63df) p < 0.001, CFI = 0950, NFI=0.912, RMSEA=0.067, TLI = 0.927; *Traditional schools defined as “0” and alternative schools defined as “1.” Arrows represent significant relationships only.

The analysis of the SEM model indicates that, as expected, motivation and social support were associated with out-of-school participation (β = 0.248, β = 0.451, respectively) whereas social support and school relatedness were associated with in-school participation (β = 0.278, β = 0.400, respectively). School relatedness also had a direct relationship to school QoL (β = 0.522). In addition to its associations with participation both in- and out-of-school, social support also showed a direct relationship with overall wellbeing (β = 0.132). Yet, as opposed to the hypothesis, although personal and environmental factors were found to be associated (as reported above), these associations were no longer statistically significant in the SEM model. In this model, motivation was also found to serve as a mediating factor between school type and overall wellbeing (β = 0.608). Additionally, the model highlights role of in-school participation as a mediator between school type, and school QoL (β = 0.305). However, participation out-of-school did not serve as a mediating factor in the model.

Contrary to the research hypothesis, school type demonstrated a direct association with students’ school QoL (β = 0.148), suggesting that the type of educational setting is associated with students’ school QoL, beyond the personal and environmental factors, as well as participation. However, school type did not show no a direct link to overall wellbeing, which appears to be shaped primarily through indirect associations. Finally, school type was positively associated with motivation (β = 0.126) and school relatedness (β = 0.163), indicating that students attending traditional schools reported higher motivation and school relatedness. In addition, school type showed a negative association with in-school participation (β = −0.191), indicating that students attending alternative schools reported higher school QoL.

Discussion

Personal and environmental factors are important for understanding adolescents’ participation in daily activities, which is essential for enhancing their wellbeing and school QoL (Eccles and Roeser, 2011; Fredricks and Eccles, 2008; Katja et al., 2002). However, there is limited knowledge about this topic, especially regarding students attending alternative schools. The primary aims of this study were to compare high school students attending alternative schools (intended for students with academic and behavioral problems) with students attending traditional schools, in terms of their personal and environmental factors as well as participation, school QoL and wellbeing. The role of these factors and participation in mediating the relationship between school type and school QoL and overall wellbeing was examined.

Group comparisons

With the purpose of addressing the first study objective, the groups were compared with respect to the personal factors, indicating that the students with academic and/or behavioral problems in the alternative schools demonstrated higher overall motivation scores, specifically in their sense of autonomy and competence. Students attending the alternative schools were found to exhibit a higher sense of competence and autonomy. This finding is somewhat unexpected, as these students are newcomers to the alternative setting and the school’s influence on them would be expected to be minimal. One possible explanation is that the transition itself may foster a greater sense of autonomy and competence, perhaps due to features of the alternative schools such as smaller class sizes, closer student–teacher relationships, and a more homogeneous peer group. Given the absence of supporting evidence in the existing literature, this interpretation remains tentative and underscores the need for further empirical investigation.

In contrast, no significant differences were noted in relatedness, which was high in both groups. Relatedness represents the social connections that students have with the people from different facets of their lives (Cockerill, 2019), and it plays a crucial role during adolescence by fostering positive peer relationships (Ulmanen et al., 2024). This study’s finding may suggest that relatedness may be experienced as a broader, more generalized sense of connection, encompassing the students’ overall social relationships beyond the school environment. That hypothesis is supported by the finding that in contrast to general relatedness, students attending the alternative schools exhibited higher levels of school relatedness, compared to their peers in the traditional schools, although this difference only approached statistical significance (0.05). This finding shows a trend in the same direction as that reported by Galdeano (2016), who reported positive relationships between teachers and students in alternative settings, which significantly contributed to their academic success and sense of relatedness to school. Hence, it appears that the unique educational attributes of the alternative school have positive effects on the students, enhancing the different components of intrinsic motivation and school relatedness.

Finally, no group effect was found in students’ perceptions of their social support. These findings contrasted with prior research suggesting that students in alternative schools receive significantly stronger social support from educational staff, compared to their peers in traditional schools (Cable et al., 2009; Edgar-Smith and Palmer, 2015; Lehr, 2004). The discrepancy may stem from the broader conceptualization of social support in the current study, which encompasses not only support from teachers and school staff but also from family and friends. This broader scope could introduce variability in the results, as different sources of support may play distinct roles in students’ experiences and perceptions.

An encouraging finding in this study was that students in both groups experienced high levels of social support, indicating that peers and family play a critical role in providing the necessary emotional and psychological support for adolescents. This was found in a study that explored adolescents’ social support networks, emphasizing the roles of parents and peers in providing emotional and instrumental support (Del Valle et al., 2010). The authors found a developmental shift in support dynamics: emotional support from parents tended to decrease with age, while emotional support from peers increased correspondingly. Nevertheless, parents remained key providers of instrumental support throughout adolescence.

Personal and environmental factors and participation as mediators

With the purpose of addressing the second and third objectives, the analysis revealed significant correlations between all the study’s variables. These correlations formed the foundation for the SEM model, which explored the mediating role of personal and environmental factors, as well as participation in daily activities, in the relationship between school type and both school QoL and overall wellbeing. With respect to school QoL, the SEM analysis revealed that school type had a significant direct positive effect on school QoL, indicating that the students with academic and/or behavioral problems attending alternative schools reported higher school QoL, regardless of their personal and environmental factors. Because data collection for both groups took place during the early months of the students’ first year at their respective schools, it is hypothesized that the actual effect of the alternative schools was minimal. Instead, the transition to a new school and the accompanying sense of a fresh start, along with smaller class sizes and closer student-teacher relationships may have somewhat enhanced students’ perceptions of higher school QoL, which emphasizes these factors. However, this hypothesis requires further investigation.

This relationship was also mediated by in-school participation. This finding supports previous results among adolescents, showing a positive relationship between participation and QoL (Konu et al., 2002; Laurence, 2021). In-school participation also mediated the relationship between school relatedness and both social support and school QoL. A possible explanation is that when students felt a sense of connection and belonging within the school environment, whether to peers or teachers, they were more likely to engage in school activities, which in turn enhanced their school QoL. These findings partially correspond to the study by Demir and Leyendecker (2018), who found that school-related social support from teachers and classmates was associated with health-related QoL. These results are also consistent with the ICF model that suggests that personal factors (school relatedness) and environmental factors (social support) influence individuals’ participation in daily life and play a significant role in shaping one’s QoL. It is important to note that although correlations were found between personal and environmental factors, these relationships were not significant in the SEM model. This discrepancy may have occurred because SEM considers the simultaneous influence of multiple variables, which can reduce or eliminate direct relationships observed in simple correlations.

Unlike school QoL, results showed that school type did not have a direct effect on overall wellbeing, and the relationship between school type and overall wellbeing was not mediated by in-school or out-of-school participation, even though there were significant correlations between participation and overall wellbeing. As highlighted in a systematic review comparing alternative and traditional schools, there is a dearth of studies on this topic (Guerrero et al., 2024). However, this study’s findings are consistent with those reported by previous research that compared adolescents attending alternative and traditional schools using the SLSS measure, and found no significant differences in overall wellbeing between the groups. Notably, their sample included adolescents enrolled in Waldorf schools (Besançon et al., 2015). A possible explanation is that the questionnaire used to assess overall wellbeing focused only on one aspect of wellbeing, namely life satisfaction, whereas overall wellbeing is a wider construct. Another possible explanation is that the strong relationship between motivation and overall wellbeing may have masked the relationship between participation and overall wellbeing.

In contrast to participation, the relationship between school type and overall wellbeing was mediated by motivation. This suggests that the students in the AS group reported higher motivation, which in turn resulted in a better sense of overall wellbeing. These results are consistent with the SDT theory, which posits that fulfillment of the three basic psychological needs is essential for promoting individuals’ overall wellbeing (Deci and Ryan, 1985). The results also suggest that the individualized educational programs and the close student-teacher relationship in the alternative schools (Shamrova et al., 2024; Rubens et al., 2019; Perzigian et al., 2017) were probably effective in fulfilling the students’ basic needs, including a greater sense of autonomy and competence. These findings align with previous research indicating that students in alternative educational settings often exhibit high levels of self-determination, although such studies did not include direct comparisons with students in traditional schools (Kosinski, 2024).

Limitations and recommendations for further studies

This study provided important new data relating to school QoL and overall wellbeing of students attending alternative schools, compared with students attending traditional schools. Yet, several limitations should be considered. The academic and/or behavioral problems of the students in the alternative schools were assumed by the fact that such schools are intended for students who dropped out or were expelled from traditional schools. Yet due to restrictions imposed by the Ministry of Education, it was not possible to directly assess and compare the academic performance or behavioral records of students in either group. Nevertheless, all participants demonstrated normal nonverbal intelligence, as assessed by the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (Raven and Court, 1977).

Additionally, students were not randomly assigned to school types, and the observed association between school type and School QoL may have been influenced by prior underachievement or behavioral difficulties. The selection of students attending alternative schools for students with academic or behavioral problems may limit the external validity of the study, as it does not refer to all underachieving students such as those attending traditional schools. Furthermore, data collection relied solely on students’ self-reports. Future research should aim to incorporate perspectives from educational staff and parents to provide a more holistic understanding of students’ experiences and outcomes. In addition, the cross-sectional design employed in this study, alongside the fact that the students in the sample were in their first year in the current educational setting, limits the ability to suggest a causal long-term effect of school type on school QoL and overall wellbeing. Finally, future research should incorporate qualitative data, such as interviews with students, which could provide valuable insights into their lived experiences, offering a deeper understanding of the personal and environmental factors influencing their school QoL and overall wellbeing.

Conclusion

This study is among the first to examine the mediation effect of personal and environmental factors, as well as participation in daily activities, in the relationship between high school type (alternative vs. traditional schools) and both school QoL and overall wellbeing. The findings indicated a direct relationship between school type and students’ school QoL, with higher scores reported by students in the alternative schools, as well as between in-school participation and school QoL. Because the students in the sample were in the beginning of their first year in the new educational setting, these findings likely reflect the mere transition to the new educational setting rather than the long-term effects of school type. It is possible that the mere transition to the alternative school fostered among the students a stronger sense of autonomy and competence, supported by smaller class sizes, closer student–teacher relationships, and a more homogeneous peer group – factors that may have enhanced perception of school QoL. However, these results are preliminary, and additional research is required to substantiate this hypothesis. Therefore, it is suggested considering incorporating these elements into traditional schools, with the purpose of promoting greater student participation, improving their school QoL.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by the institutional research board (IRB) of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (No. 02102022) and the Israel Ministry of Education (No. 12597). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardians/next of kin.

Author contributions

YL-P: Methodology, Data curation, Investigation, Conceptualization, Validation, Software, Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Resources, Writing – original draft, Project administration, Formal analysis. NW: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Investigation, Validation, Data curation, Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Software. AG: Conceptualization, Software, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Writing – review & editing, Resources, Validation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, Supervision.

Funding

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully thank the educational staff and the students who participated in this study, to Adi Ran who assisted with the data collection and Haya Fogel-Grinvald who assisted with the statistical analysis.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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Abbreviations

APQ, Adolescents Participation Questionnaire; AS, Alternative schools; BPNSFS, Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale; MSPSS, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support; PEOP, Person-Environment-Occupation-Performance; PSSM, Psychological Sense of School Membership- Relatedness in the School Context; QoL, Quality of life; QoLS, Quality of Life in School Questionnaire; RSPM, Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices; SLSS, Huebner’s Student Life Satisfaction Scale; TS, Traditional schools.