Ricardo Pérez Zúñiga
Mario Martínez García
Francisco Eduardo Oliva Ibarra- 1Departamento de Ciencias Computacionales, Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenierías, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
- 2Departamento de Ciencias Computacionales e Ingenierías, Centro Universitario de los Valles, Universidad de Guadalajara, Ameca, Jalisco, México
Introduction: The employability of university community members depends on the skills they acquire, as well as on the teaching and evaluation methodologies used. The integration of these elements into academic programs is crucial for successful job placement.
Methods: The PRISMA methodology was followed for a systematic review of literature indexed in Web of Science and Scopus, based on a critical analysis of the literature.
Results: The results primarily encompass undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate. The training is predominantly multidisciplinary, emphasizing skills such as communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and critical thinking. Teaching methods utilize real-world environments, while assessments employ Likert scales and task-based evaluations.
Discussion: Employability is a key objective in higher education and should be integrated at all academic levels. The most effective teaching methods are experiential and practical, as they simulate real-world work environments. Core competencies include communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and critical thinking. In addition, newer competencies such as ethics, professionalism, and a capacity for lifelong learning are increasingly important. Finally, assessment methods must be aligned with these practical approaches.
Introduction
Globalization and technological advances have transformed employment, replacing permanent jobs with non-standard arrangements and increasing labor mobility. Consequently, employability is now considered a greater challenge than unemployment, as the core issue is not a lack of jobs, but a shortage of appropriate skills among graduates (Sarfraz et al., 2018). In this context, particularly following recent shifts like the Fourth Industrial Revolution and the COVID-19 pandemic, graduate employability and skills development have become higher education priorities. Universities must therefore prepare students not just for employment, but for adapting to complex work environments. This requires closer collaboration between academia and employers to align training with market demands (Abelha et al., 2020).
A gap exists between the skills employers demand and those graduates possess. This is recognized as a global problem and a primary concern for executives (Sarfraz et al., 2018). There is also little research on effective methods for assessing and promoting these skills, and a shortage of validated instruments. Therefore, innovative pedagogical strategies that integrate technical and transversal skills are needed, along with program evaluations to guide sustainable policies for strengthening employability (Abelha et al., 2020). Consequently, higher education's focus on employability demands that institutions equip students with solid skills and knowledge across all disciplinary areas. While existing literature has made valuable contributions, it has primarily focused on specific fields, resulting in fragmented perspectives and a lack of a multidisciplinary vision. This systematic review literature (SRL) addresses this gap by adopting a multidisciplinary approach to offer a more comprehensive understanding.
It is necessary to begin by making a distinction: employability is not the same as employment. The former consists of a set of achievements, skills, and personal attributes, while the latter depends on external factors like the labor market. Therefore, a person can be employable even without immediately finding a job. However, having the skills that promote employability increases the chances of a successful job search (Yorke, 2006). Following this logic, “Employability should be interpreted as an institutional achievement, not as an individual student's propensity to secure employment (Harvey, 2001). This perspective places the responsibility on educational institutions to create the conditions that develop employability.
Thus, employability training must be a competency-based process capable of ensuring quality education in a changing and unpredictable work environment. However, while it has emerged as a central concern in higher education, the concept of university employability lacks a coherent and solid theoretical and pedagogical framework (Healy, 2023). On the other hand, employers seek to recruit graduates who demonstrate clearly defined employability skills (Chweu et al., 2023).
Given the rapidly evolving labor market, university students' employability depends on their ability to analyze learning experiences acquired not only in the academic field, but also through extracurricular activities and work environments (Heymann et al., 2022). Consequently, it is imperative for curricular designs to integrate the skills demanded by the labor market. This will enable future professionals to perform their functions effectively and contribute to a dynamic, responsible, and sustainable society with the capacity for adaptation and resilience (Zinkunegi-Goitia and Rekalde-Rodríguez, 2022). Furthermore, it is crucial to understand that ”Employability is a continuous process of development that does not end with finding a job. It goes beyond acquiring skills or a position; it is about developing graduates into critical and autonomous learners (Harvey, 2004).
The central question, therefore, is identifying the skills that adequately prepare graduates for work (Edziwa and Blignaut, 2022). Likewise, it is essential for recent graduates to master digital skills when beginning their professional careers (De Villiers Scheepers et al., 2024). To achieve this, universities must produce professionals who are not only qualified but also confident in their skills, thereby facilitating their transition into the labor market.
Higher education institutions, as training providers, require a flexible and updated curriculum that responds to labor market demands. To achieve this, content must be continually reviewed to ensure it integrates both theoretical foundations and practical applications. The curriculum must incorporate job-training skills, along with pedagogical and evaluative methods that foster collaboration with industry. In educational assessment, it is a key tool for teachers to improve their instruction and facilitate student learning (Mahlambi et al., 2022). Assessing students involves many challenges. Developing instruments, interpreting the results, and using them to improve teaching and learning are complex feats (Cote Parra and López, 2024).
One of the most important elements in contemporary education is competency-based assessment, which has driven an evolution in teaching strategies and relies on a variety of assessment techniques for its implementation (Herguedas and Navarro-Asencio, 2023). In assessing employability, evaluation should be conducted through practical tasks that simulate real-world situations. This approach aims to measure what students know, what they can do, and their attitude toward the work (Vlachopoulos and Makri, 2024).
Although universities are increasingly focused on employability and are revising their teaching and assessment methods, their graduates often still lack a solid theoretical and pedagogical foundation (Healy, 2023). The application of teaching and assessment methods varies widely depending on the discipline and context. However, they all share the same purpose: to serve the learning process and to be adapted in different ways to meet educational objectives (Mitchell et al., 2024). The curriculum must reflect this duality between teaching and assessment. Likewise, it is essential to evaluate students' abilities and skills, integrating both qualitative and ethical aspects through clearly defined standards.
The primary objective of this research is to analyze the influence of the competency-based approach in higher education—specifically its teaching and assessment methodologies—on employability in vocational training.
Methods
This study was conducted as a SLR in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines (Haddaway et al., 2022). A bibliographic search was conducted in the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus databases on August 8, 2025, limiting the results to publications from 2021 to 2025. For this SLR, several filters were initially applied to the WoS and Scopus searches. However, the search strings yielded a potentially unmanageable volume of literature. It was therefore necessary to implement a deliberately focused search strategy. The decision was made to use the keyword “employability” exclusively in the title of documents, as this concept is the central axis of the research. The terms “higher education” and “competencies” were selected for being precise and well-established descriptors. The search results yielded no gray literature, such as theses or conference papers, as shown in (Figure 1).
Figure 1. PRISMA diagram.
Figure 1. Outlines this process, illustrating the identification, screening, and inclusion phases.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Of the 76 articles obtained from both databases, those meeting the following criteria were included:
The search terms used were: employability, “higher education,” and competencies. The inclusion criteria were as follows: 1) the terms “employability” and “higher education” must appear in the article's title; 2) the term “competencies” must appear in the subject or keywords; 3) the selected documents must be original or review articles; 4) they must be open access; and 5) they must be written in English.
Of the 33 documents excluded, 18 were outside the established range, 14 were duplicates, and 1 was unrelated to the field of higher education. This process yielded a total of 43 eligible studies. The full search strategy is detailed in the supplementary material.
Formulation and validation of research questions
The five research questions (RQs) were formulated and validated by consensus among the authors, based on their disciplinary expertise and research background. The questions guiding this research are:
RQ-1: What is the percentage distribution of university students by academic level?
RQ-2: What are the primary educational programs mentioned?
RQ-3: Which innovative teaching methods are mentioned most frequently?
RQ-4: Which evaluation methods are mentioned most frequently?
RQ-5: Which professional skill or competency is most frequently linked to employability?
Results
Figure 2 integrates the results of this study. In part (A), the Sankey diagram illustrates the connections among the four research questions (RQ-1 to RQ-4), linking the academic level, educational programs, teaching methods, and evaluation methods reported in the analyzed studies. To address RQ-5, section (B) presents a bar chart summarizing the most recurrent competencies found in the literature. Together, these representations provide an integrated view of how professional competencies are studied and assessed in higher education, based on the literature review.
Figure 2. The integrated findings for the five research questions are presented using Sankey diagrams (A) for RQ-1 through RQ-4—addressing academic level, educational programs, teaching methods, and evaluation methods—and a bar chart (B) for RQ-5, which covers skills and competencies.
RQ-1: This question focuses on three distinct academic profiles: a) the undergraduate student, who is working toward a degree (bachelor's or engineering); b) the graduate, who has completed this training and holds a professional degree but is not currently pursuing further studies; and c) the postgraduate student, who is pursuing a specialized field through master's or doctoral programs. At the academic level, the “Undergraduate” category predominates at 34.9%. This is followed by the “Graduate” and “Undergraduate, Postgraduate & Graduate” categories, each at 23.3%. RQ-2: Regarding educational programs, the most frequent category is “Multidisciplinary” (32.6%), followed by “Not Mentioned” (20.9%), “Business Administration and Economics” (18.6%), and “Medical and Health” (9.3%). This distribution shows that the research is not concentrated in a single discipline but is predominantly multidisciplinary. RQ-3: For teaching methods, the category “Not mentioned” is the most frequent, appearing in 32.6% of the cases. The most reported specified methodologies are Experiential Learning (14.0%), followed by Competency-Based Educational Approaches and Work-Integrated Learning (11.6% each). This indicates that a significant portion of the studies (one-third) do not specify a teaching methodology. RQ-4: For evaluation methods, the “Not mentioned” category is the largest at 30.2%. Among the specified methods, the Likert scale is the most frequently cited (18.6%), followed by Task-Based Assessment (11.6%). This shows that Likert-type surveys are the most common specific evaluation tool reported. RQ-5: Bar chart (B) shows the identified competencies. The most frequently mentioned are Communication (20.4%), followed by Teamwork and Problem-Solving (17.5% each), Critical Thinking (11.7%), and Adaptability (9.5%).
To explore these connections, we analyzed the relationships between the dimensions:
Relationship between RQ-1 and RQ-2 (Academic level and Educational programs)
The “Undergraduate” profile is strongly associated with the “Multidisciplinary” area, followed by “Business Administration and Economics.” The “Graduate” profile is also significantly associated with “Multidisciplinary” and with the “Not Mentioned” category.
Relationship between RQ-2 and RQ-3 (Educational programs and Teaching methods)
The “Business Administration and Economics” area is strongly associated with the “Not Mentioned” category for teaching methods. Meanwhile, the “Multidisciplinary” area is primarily linked to “Work-Integrated Learning” and “Experiential Learning”.
Relationship between RQ-3 and RQ-4 (Teaching and Assessment methods)
The “Not Mentioned” category predominates in both dimensions and shows a statistically significant bilateral association. In particular, the “Not Mentioned” category for teaching methods is highly significantly associated with the Likert scale in Assessment Methods (RQ-4).
Discussion
Promoting employability remains a priority in higher education, as it has become a key indicator of institutional performance (Pepple et al., 2025). However, the university environment encompasses different academic levels, such as undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate, each with its own objectives and requirements. Each level represents a stage in the progression toward specialization, which entails a greater depth of knowledge and, consequently, more substantial experience.
The analysis of RQ-1 reveals that the high proportion of responses from the undergraduate level (34.8%) suggests a need to strengthen employability initiatives from the initial training stage. Likewise, a significant percentage (23.3%) is recorded for the category that integrates all three academic levels. An identical value is found for the graduate level alone. This indicates that employability training is not focused solely on undergraduate students but also encompasses a significant percentage of graduate and postgraduate students. The growing number of postgraduates has increased focus on the employability outcomes for this group (T. Pham, 2025). Precisely, this support becomes indispensable when students undertake highly specialized research projects during their postgraduate studies (Revand and Kaur, 2023).
Undergraduate research is crucial for establishing a foundation of knowledge. Therefore, investing in employability training at all levels should be a strategic priority. The population with higher education (whether a degree or ongoing training) has higher employment rates than those with less education. This trend reflects the clear labor-market advantage of an advanced education (Blanco et al., 2022). Although universities are increasingly focusing on producing employable graduates (Mooney, 2023), only through coordination between universities and the productive sector can we offer training that is truly relevant, preparing students for the challenges of a constantly evolving work environment. Consequently, developing skills and knowledge to increase employability throughout the university population's various stages has become a critical priority for higher education institutions (Scheuring and Thompson, 2025).
After graduation, students face numerous career options. It is essential to guide them in exploring these alternatives and making decisions aligned with their values, professional aspirations, and personal goals (Jahnke and Bradley, 2024). Consequently, the focus on multidisciplinarity in higher education has received significant attention in recent years (Singh, 2023). This is reflected in the results for educational programs (RQ-2), which reveal a remarkably diverse distribution. The “Multidisciplinary” category was the most frequently mentioned (32.6%), suggesting that employability is not limited to a single discipline. It is noteworthy that a considerable proportion of the studies (20.9%) did not specify the educational program from which their participants were drawn. This finding supports the need to prepare students for complex, constantly evolving work environments. Therefore, to increase the employment rate of graduates, higher education institutions are developing high-quality, technologically advanced, multidisciplinary curricula (Huang et al., 2020). In conclusion, higher education should integrate training in employability-related skills across all disciplines, as the results demonstrate that successful job placement is not confined to a specific field.
The highest-rated teaching methods in this study are those that focus on the practical and authentic application of knowledge. This is likely because such an approach is more effective in situations that replicate the challenges of a real professional environment. By giving students an active role in their learning process, these methods link theoretical training to the development of practical skills.
The most frequently reported teaching methods are Experiential Learning (14.0%), followed by Work-Integrated Learning (WIL) and Competency-Based Educational Approaches (both at 11.6%). Another method, such as Problem-Based Learning (9.3%), is also present, though to a lesser extent. This indicates a clear trend toward immersion in real-life contexts to foster employability. It is important to note that WIL integrates multiple components and adopts diverse pedagogical approaches, including practical learning, internships, problem-based learning, experiential learning, on-the-job training, and practical education (Srivastava and Haghi, 2024). Although it was not the most prominent category, its recurring mention cemented its significance within the study.
Other authors also concur that active learning methods are highly relevant for employability. These include corporate internships, project or problem-based learning, and participation in research projects (Perez-Encinas and Berbegal-Mirabent, 2023), methods that are complemented by activities such as internships and simulations in real-life contexts. Likewise, competency assessment is carried out through tasks that reflect the situations students will encounter in the workplace (Long et al., 2023). This suggests that universities are recognizing the importance of connecting classroom learning with real-world settings.
Therefore, teaching methods for employability (RQ-3) should emphasize fieldwork, as it provides opportunities for students to develop transferable skills that enhance their employability, alongside technical, discipline-specific competencies and disciplinary knowledge (Scheuring and Thompson, 2025). Using multi-modal teaching methodologies better develops student employability (Manoj, 2022).
Furthermore, this necessitates a renewal of pedagogical methods in higher education, focused on assessing competencies (attitudes and aptitudes). This approach should prioritize practical application, technological integration, and the knowledge that facilitates entry into the workforce.
However, a critical finding is that in 32.6% of cases, the teaching method was not specified. This is a crucial point, as the research being reviewed must not only implement effective methods but also document its processes comprehensively.
Assessment is essential to guide the learning process. However, evaluation practices have been scarcely investigated, as evidenced by the limited literature available on this topic (Ketonen et al., 2025). Therefore, this topic is a field that requires further exploration. Regarding assessment methods for employability (RQ-4), the results show a diversity of methods used, alongside a significant presence (30.2%) of the “Not mentioned” category. This suggests that a considerable portion of the literature does not explicitly detail the assessment methods employed. This is a significant limitation, as it hinders the replicability of studies and the consolidation of solid evidence for effective evaluation methods.
Other assessment methods reported in face-to-face education include group projects and face-to-face simulations. In online education, tools such as e-portfolios and virtual simulations provide flexibility and accessibility. Both methods seek to improve students' skills and employability (Vlachopoulos and Makri, 2024).
Among the most notable methods are the Likert scale (18.6%), task-based assessment (11.6%), and questionnaires (7.0%). One of the most focused and direct methods for assessing employability is task-based assessment, which simulates real-world work and, most importantly, evaluates the application of learned skills. Industry engagement is also highlighted as a method that aligns with labor market demands. Both methods are inherently superior to the more widely used techniques for assessing employability, despite their current limited implementation (2.3% in each case).
It is essential that assessment practices be designed to be inclusive, meaningful, and relevant to students' diverse needs (Rutherford et al., 2025). This is especially critical for an issue as important as employability. Consequently, evaluation must evolve into a progressive, practical model that incorporates multiple measures (Segbenya et al., 2023). Therefore, assessment methods must evolve to become more diverse, practical, and innovative, prioritizing a comprehensive and formative approach. This necessitates moving beyond traditional techniques toward rigorous, objective, and precise practical applications that progressively develop skills.
International studies agree that the priority skills for employability include communication, teamwork, problem-solving, critical thinking, adaptability, leadership, and digital skills (Suleman, 2016), and, according to recent contributions, professionalism, listening skills, and professional ethics and values (Kwarteng and Mensah, 2022), literacy, numeracy, and lifelong learning (García-Álvarez et al., 2022). In this context, comprehensive professionals must develop competencies that allow them to adapt their knowledge and skills to contribute significantly to future progress (Chans et al., 2025).
Furthermore, the analysis of skills or competencies (RQ-5) reveals that the aforementioned competencies encompass both technical and transversal skills for employability training. Communication is the most frequently cited skill, at 20.4%. Next in importance are teamwork and problem-solving, each at 17.5%. Rounding out the group of the five most in-demand skills are critical thinking, at 11.7%, and adaptability, at 9.5%.
However, a significant challenge persists. The development of technical skills is an essential requirement, yet preparation in universities and for the workforce has historically focused on mastering transversal skills, often overlooking this crucial knowledge. For instance, digitalization has a decisive influence on professional employability by fostering demand for increasingly complex and specialized occupations (Lennon et al., 2023); consequently, to adapt to the demanding labor market, future professionals must develop and master digital skills (T. T. H. Pham et al., 2024).
Indeed, employers themselves seek a specific profile in new hires, one that includes both technical and soft skills. Nevertheless, identifying the latter is more complex, raising the concern that universities may not be adequately preparing students for employer expectations (Sebastião et al., 2023). Ultimately, the lack of scientific literature enabling the objective quantification and evaluation of these skills represents a critical gap, as mastery of technical skills is now a primary hiring requirement rather than merely a supplement to employability.
Conclusion
The analysis reveals that the three educational levels (undergraduate, postgraduate, and graduate) represent a significant percentage. This suggests that the studies examined consider these levels in relation to preparation for subsequent employment. Regarding educational programs, the analysis identifies multidisciplinarity as the primary focus, which suggests it is of greater interest compared to a unidisciplinary approach.
Regarding teaching methodologies, it is worth noting that a high percentage of studies do not specify the methodology used. However, among those that are mentioned, Experiential Learning, WIL, Competency-Based Education, and Problem-Based Learning are considered effective for promoting employability. The implementation of these methodologies, when linked to real-world contexts, is highly relevant due to its effectiveness and its role in promoting a comprehensive training process.
In the evaluation methods, the lack of reporting in a large percentage of studies is also striking. Among the most cited methods are the Likert scale and task-based assessment. However, more specific methods for measuring labor market demands, such as industry engagement and competency-based evaluation, are considered more appropriate for measuring employability.
Skills such as communication, teamwork, problem-solving, and critical thinking are identified as the most in-demand for employability, collectively representing the majority. This suggests that while technical skills are a priority for passing the hiring interview and securing a job, it is the aforementioned competencies that are perceived as critical for long-term success. A clear example of this paradox is digital skills: despite being essential for virtually all professions and their undeniable rise in importance, this analysis does not mention them as a key element for employability.
Study limitations
Despite its systematic approach and focus on the literature concerning employability, methods, and competencies in higher education, this article has limitations that prevented a more in-depth analysis. Future research should address key areas that could influence policymakers, specifically regarding curricular relevance, inclusion and diversity, and, in the academic domain, mentoring and teacher training, all focused on employability.
Author contributions
RPZ: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MMG: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. FEOI: Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Salvador Pérez Zúñiga, Felipa Cruz Mondragón, Salvador Pérez Alaniz, and María Zúñiga Cruz.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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The author(s) declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2025.1703144/full#supplementary-material
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Keywords: teamwork, problem-solving, critical thinking, curriculum, technical skills, digital skills
Citation: Pérez Zúñiga R, Martínez García M and Oliva Ibarra FE (2025) Employability and its relationship with the competency-based approach, teaching methodologies, and assessment in higher education: a systematic review. Front. Educ. 10:1703144. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1703144
Received: 10 September 2025; Revised: 19 October 2025; Accepted: 17 November 2025;
Published: 03 December 2025.
Edited by:
Ramon Ventura Roque Hernández, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas—Facultad de Comercio, MexicoReviewed by:
Hasanuzzaman Tushar, International University of Business Agriculture and Technology, BangladeshCopyright © 2025 Pérez Zúñiga, Martínez García and Oliva Ibarra. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Mario Martínez García, bWFyaW8ubWdhcmNpYUBhY2FkZW1pY29zLnVkZy5teA==