Vegard Renolen Litlabø
Monika Haga
Isabell Richter
Hermundur Sigmundsson- 1Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
- 2Department of Teacher Education, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
The purpose of this study was to survey how middle school students perceive their passion, grit, growth mindset, self-efficacy, compassion, courage, school safety, school wellbeing and flourishing. Gender differences were explored in both baseline levels and correlations of these constructs. A cross-sectional survey was conducted on 7260 Norwegian 12–14 year old adolescents. T-tests and correlation analyses were used explore gender-specific patterns in 3539 boys and 3721 girls. Results showed gender differences in factors for psychological resilience, with boys reporting significantly higher levels of passion, grit, growth mindset, self-efficacy, self-compassion, courage, school wellbeing, and school safety. Girls scored significantly higher on compassion for others and reported receiving more compassion from others. No significant difference was found in levels of flourishing. Although boys scored higher on all motivational factors included in this study, girls showed stronger associations between self-efficacy, grit, and growth mindset which suggests a more cohesive motivation profile. In girls, school wellbeing showed stronger associations with perceived safety as well as both received and self-directed compassion compared to boys. For boys, compassion toward others showed a stronger correlation with both self-compassion and the compassion they received from others. These patterns suggest that girls may particularly benefit from increased self-efficacy and self-directed compassion, while boys may gain from developing more compassion toward others. Future research is needed to explore how these patterns evolve over time.
1 Introduction
Adolescence is referred to as the transition between childhood to adulthood and is characterized by profound social and emotional changes, during which individuals become increasingly susceptible to mental health challenges partly due to intensified self-awareness, peer influence, and a heightened sensitivity to social evaluation and rejection (Jaworska and MacQueen, 2015; Orben et al., 2020; Somerville, 2013). Although Norwegian teens continue to report high wellbeing by international standards, recent studies suggest a declining motivation and rising mental health challenges compared to data from more than ten years ago (Krokstad et al., 2022; Bakken, 2024). Research also suggests girls score lower in predictors of resilience such as eudaimonic wellbeing and self-efficacy compared to boys (Bakken, 2024). Furthermore, Krokstad et al. (2022) finds that Norwegian adolescent girls consistently report more than twice the levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms compared to boys, with an increasing trend observed for both genders over the past three decades. These findings call for more longitudinal research investigating resilience factors and gender differences in Norwegian adolescents which can help to understand these trends.
2 Theoretical background
2.1 Motivational factors
To understand what drives students' learning, perseverance, and wellbeing, this section explores four key motivational factors: passion, growth mindset, self-efficacy, and grit. For instance, a strong interest or passion in an activity is often needed to be motivated, as it can activate more dopamine release, aiding the development of new skills and achieving one's goals (Wise, 2004). This passion can be defined as “a strong feeling toward a personally important value or preference that motivates intentions and behaviors to express that value or preference” (Jachimowicz et al., 2018; p. 9980). Passion is a key element of reaching higher achievement among adolescents (Jachimowicz et al., 2018; Sigmundsson et al., 2020a), and it has also been shown to predict wellbeing measures through attributes like dedication, enthusiasm and accomplishment in a specific activity or area (Vallerand, 2016). Passion can thus be seen as a strong motivational force which can influence the quality of life, helping the adolescents to flourish in a school environment (Ruiz-Alfonso and León, 2016).
Another widely researched construct related to motivation is the two-dimensional construct grit, referring to the perseverance and consistency of interest toward long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007). Individuals having grit remain focused on their goals even in the face of difficulties, making it closely related to resilience in adolescence. Research suggests that grit has a significant correlation with academic achievement (Christopoulou et al., 2018; Credé et al., 2017), and greater wellbeing (Hou et al., 2022). Whilst passion may initiate engagement toward an activity, grit will make them more likely to continue doing the activity over time (Sigmundsson, 2021; Sigmundsson et al., 2020a,b).
According to (Bandura 1977; 1997) theory of self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task is a key component of motivation and learning. (Bandura 1997, p. 3) defines self-efficacy as “beliefs in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments.” Higher levels of self-efficacy have been associated with greater academic performance (Honicke and Broadbent, 2016) and is associated with resilience in adolescents (Sagone et al., 2020). Recent studies on Norwegian adolescents have found that low academic self-efficacy could predict both depression and anxiety symptoms (Bondaksen et al., 2023). Moreover, self-efficacy aids how adolescents cope with stressors, thus increasing life-satisfaction (Kleppang et al., 2023; Moksnes et al., 2019). Research suggests that earlier experiences of mastery in a given activity are the most influential to self-efficacy levels (Joët et al., 2011). Additionally, studies have found a strong link between mastery experiences and social support (Kleppang et al., 2023). For example, an adolescent who receives consistent encouragement and guidance from a teacher while improving their math skills is more likely to view themselves as competent in the subject, reinforcing their sense of self-efficacy through both mastery and supportive relationships.
Another influential motivational factor in adolescence is the belief that abilities can grow through effort and learning, commonly referred to as a growth mindset (Dweck, 2006, 2017). Individuals with a growth mindset view failures as opportunities to learn, which helps them maintain perseverance and bounce back from setbacks more effectively (Dweck and Yeager, 2019). Recent research indicates that a growth mindset is an adaptive trait in adolescence, associated with reduced vulnerability to mental health problems, thus making them more psychological resilient (Calo et al., 2024; Calvete et al., 2022). Together, these motivational constructs are considered essential to adolescent development.
Previous research suggests that males report higher levels of passion and self-efficacy, whereas females tend to score higher on grit, with mixed findings regarding growth mindset (Christensen and Knezek, 2014; Kannangara et al., 2018; Huang, 2012; Sigmundsson et al., 2020b; Sigmundsson, 2021).
2.2 Compassion
As adolescents transition from childhood, peer interactions become even more important to shape and influence their emotions, behaviors, and wellbeing (Yoon et al., 2023). The literature also suggest that girls show greater sensitivity to relational distress, higher empathy, and a stronger fear of rejection than boys (Rose and Rudolph, 2006; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2021). Compassion, both toward oneself and others, is increasingly recognized as a positive resilience resource regarding youth mental health (Bluth et al., 2018; Marsh et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2024). Neff (2003) model of self-compassion includes self-kindness, mindfulness, and a sense of common humanity, and these factors suggested to be a buffer against self-criticism and emotional distress. Gilbert (2009) work on compassion also shows evidence of the role compassion has in regulating emotions and contributing to better wellbeing. Moreover, expressions of compassion toward others are often facilitated by internal emotional security, suggesting a reciprocal relationship between interpersonal and intrapersonal compassion (López et al., 2017). Neff and Germer (2017) suggest that by treating ourselves in the same way we treat those we care about, we become more connected to others not less.
Research shows consistent gender differences in compassion, as girls tend to score higher on compassion for others but lower on self-compassion, often due to heightened self-judgment and social comparison (Ferrari et al., 2022; Yarnell et al., 2015). These differences may be shaped by both biological predispositions such as emotional sensitivity and empathy (Christov-Moore et al., 2014) and sociocultural factors, including gendered expectations around caretaking, appearance, and emotional expression (Löffler and Greitemeyer, 2021).
2.3 Courage
One could argue that a key factor for creating resourceful and resilient adolescents is facing risks and fears related to challenges in life (Lodi et al., 2022). Courage can be defined as the ability to act on something despite fear or risk (Rachman, 2004). Research has suggested courage gives people protective measures against anxiety symptoms since the most effective way of overcoming is exposure therapy which requires a lot of courage (Norton and Weiss, 2009; Muris, 2009). Further, Peterson and Seligman (2004) include courage in one of the six dimensions of human strength and virtue, to achieve optimal functioning and to flourish. This is also in line with recent research showing that courage positively predicts flourishing adolescents (Parola and Marcionetti, 2022). Previous reseach exploring gender differences in courage produced mixed findings (Magnano et al., 2021; Parola and Marcionetti, 2022), though a study on younger population suggests males tend to report higher levels of courage (Ginevra et al., 2018). This may potentially reflect the broader patterns of risk-taking and perceived competence in adolescence (Byrnes et al., 1999; Goddings et al., 2023).
2.4 School safety and wellbeing
The concept of school wellbeing is multidimensional as it includes components such as students' personal and social goals, emotional engagement, perceived support, and both physical and psychological safety (Borgonovi and Pál, 2016; Lester and Cross, 2015). Wellbeing in this context can be understood from a “eudaimonic perspective” which emphasizes human flourishing and optimal psychological functioning. Flourishing, as conceptualized by Keyes (2002), builds on Ryff (1989) model of psychological wellbeing which includes components such as self-acceptance, purpose in life, autonomy, personal growth, environmental mastery, and positive social relationships. Flourishing thus involves more than the absence of distress, it reflects a state where students are thriving emotionally, socially, and academically. Recent research suggests that even moderate levels of flourishing may act as a protective factor against mental health challenges and promote a positive developmental trajectory during adolescence (Burns et al., 2022; Gilchrist et al., 2023).
School safety plays a central role in emotional and academic wellbeing. Research has consistently shown that perceived safety strongly predicts student wellbeing and school engagement (Mori et al., 2022). This relationship is closely tied to the broader concept of school climate, defined as the collective perceptions and experiences of students and staff regarding interpersonal relationships, teaching practices, and the organization of the learning environment (Loukas and Murphy, 2007). A positive school climate is characterized by secure, respectful, and supportive interactions that contribute to the students' psychological safety where students feel emotionally safe, valued, and free to express themselves without fear of ridicule or harm (Kutsyuruba et al., 2015; Delgado-Galindo et al., 2025).
Moreover, a secure school climate has been found to enhance students' sense of belonging and engagement (Cefai et al., 2021; Lombardi et al., 2019; Read et al., 2015). These conditions not only protect against mental health issues but also strengthen motivation and academic performance (Camacho et al., 2025; Delgado-Galindo et al., 2025). In this context, Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) has been suggested to promote resilience by equipping students with tools for emotion regulation, conflict resolution, and healthy relationship-building (Cefai et al., 2021; Durlak et al., 2011). When students feel secure, they are more likely to engage in learning and develop both personal and interpersonal strengths.
Gender differences in perceived safety are well-documented, with girls frequently reporting feeling less safe at school, especially in the face of indirect forms of bullying such as social exclusion and cyber harassment (Juvonen and Graham, 2014; Wendelborg, 2024). Relational aggression, which is more common among girls, is often subtle and more difficult for teachers to detect and intervene (Li et al., 2022). The rise in digital media use has further complicated bullying prevention, as harmful peer interactions now extend beyond the physical school setting into online environments (Wendelborg et al., 2024). These developments call for schools and external programs to address not only physical safety but also encouraging environments of psychological safeness that promote inclusivity, emotional support, and positive peer relationships. An overview of all the variables is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Overview of the constructs included in the study.
2.5 The current study
This study addressed two research questions: (1) Are there any gender differences among Norwegian eight graders in passion, grit, growth mindset, self-efficacy, compassion for others, self-compassion, received compassion courage, school safety, school wellbeing, and flourishing? (2) How does the relationship between these variables differ by gender?
3 Method
3.1 Procedure and participants
The study was conducted with a sample of 7,401 aged between 12 to 14 years (Mage = 12.76, SD = 0.44). Participants were recruited from 183 Norwegian secondary schools in early fall 2024, at the beginning of eighth grade. The sample consisted of 3,539 boys and 3,721 girls. Thirty eight participants had missing values of gender, and 103 indicated another gender or preferred not to disclose. Due to their of their small size of these groups, they were excluded from the analysis. The sample was recruited from schools participating in an external program called “MOT Norge,” a non-profit organization focused on preventive efforts to strengthen youth resilience, wellbeing, and life management.
The research was carried out in accordance with the guidelines from the National Committee for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences and the Humanities (NESH). Before answering the survey, the students were given information about the survey. As the participants were under the age of 16, active parental consent was acquired for their participation in the study. Participants were given the opportunity to withdraw from the study without providing any reason. No incentive was provided. Since the only available information about the participants was gender, age and school, the study was categorized as anonymous. The teachers were responsible for administrating the survey and the students were assessed in a group setting on the school campus during normal school hour in a digital form using: http://nettskjema.no ensuring no IP-address could be traced.
3.2 Instruments
All included instruments were translated to Norwegian and average score was calculated for each scale before analysis.
3.2.1 Capturing motivation
The Passion Scale developed by Sigmundsson et al. (2020a) was used in this study to measure levels of passion. This scale has eight items that capture key elements of passion and includes items such as “I spend a lot of time on projects I like” and “My passion is important to me.” Respondents answer these items on a 5-point Likert scale, which ranges from 1 (not like me at all) to 5 (very much like me). The Passion Scale has been previously validated and shown strong internal consistency, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.86 (Sigmundsson et al., 2020a). This study's Cronbach's alpha was also high, α = 0.87.
To measure respondents' grit, an 8-item measure of perseverance and passion for long-term goals referred to as Grit-S was used (Duckworth and Quinn, 2009). Items include statements such as “I am a hard worker” and “I finish whatever I begin.” Participants were asked to rate these items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not like me at all) to 5 (very much like me). A high score on the Grit-S scale indicates greater levels of grit. Previous research using the Grit-S scale has shown strong internal consistency, α = 0.83 (Duckworth and Quinn, 2009). This study's Cronbach's alpha for grit was marginal, however arguably acceptable, α = 0.60 for exploratory research (Hair et al., 2014).
The participants' self-efficacy was assessed using the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), developed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995). The scale consists of 10 items, such as “I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough” and “I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events.” Participants responded to each item on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true) A higher score on the GSE reflects greater self-efficacy. Previous research using the GSE has demonstrated good internal consistency with Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0.75 to 0.90 (Schwarzer and Jerusalem, 1995). This study's Cronbach's alpha was also strong, α = 0.90.
To measure Growth mindset, a scale by Sigmundsson and Haga (2024a) was used that consists of 8 items based on Dweck and Leggett (1988) mindset theory. Participants rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not like me at all to 5 = very much like me). The maximum score is 5 reflects high growth mindset, while the lowest score is 1 representing poor growth mindset. Previous studies show good internal consistency (α = 0.825). This study's Cronbach's alpha was also high, α = 0.86.
3.2.2 Measuring compassion
Compassion for others was measured using 10 items from the compassion for others scale, developed by Gilbert et al. (2017). Items include statements such as I am motivated to engage and work with other peoples' distress when it arises” and “I notice and am sensitive to distress in others when it arises.” Participants rated each item on a scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 10 (always)A higher score on the Compassion for Others Scale indicates a greater level of compassion toward others. This study showed a high reliability score α = 0.93.
Compassion toward self was measured using a short version including 5 items from the 10-item self-compassion scale developed by Gilbert et al. (2017). Example of items include “I notice, and am sensitive to my distressed feelings when they arise in me.” and “I direct my attention to what is likely to be helpful to me.”. Participants rated each item ranging from 1 (never) to 10 (always). A higher score on the Self-Compassion Scale indicates a greater level of self-compassion. This study showed a strong reliability score of α = 0.85.
Compassion from others was measured using a shorter 5 items the 10-item compassion from others scale developed by Gilbert et al. (2017). Such as “Others treat me with feelings of support, helpfulness and encouragement.” and “Others are accepting, non-critical and nonjudgemental of my feelings of distress.” Participants rated each item ranging from 1 (never) to 10 (always). A higher score on the Compassion Received Scale indicates a greater perception of receiving compassion from others. This study showed a high reliability score of α = 0.93.
3.2.3 Courage measure
The Courage Measure for Children (CM-C), developed by Muris (2009), is a child-adapted version of the self-report courage scale originally created by Norton and Weiss (2009). Items include 12 statements such as “I take risks when necessary” and “I stand up for what I believe in, even when it's difficult.” Participants rated each item on a 4-point scale, ranging from 1 = (not true) to 4 (true). A high score on the CM-C indicates a higher level of courage across various domains. Previous research using the CM-C has shown good internal consistency with Cronbach's alphas in the 0.70-80 range (Muris, 2009). This study's Cronbach's alpha was also strong, α = 0.77.
3.2.4 Surveying school safety and wellbeing
School wellbeing was measured with three items “I enjoy school” “I have friends to be with at school” “I like my classmates” previously used by Sigmundsson et al. (2025). The participants responded with how much they agreed with the statement ranging from 1 (disagree) to 5 (agree). The scale showed marginal, but acceptable Cronbach's alpha, α = 0.62 for exploratory research according to Hair et al. (2014).
Safety at school was assessed using three items “I feel safe at school,” “I feel safe in my class” and “I feel safe during recess” also previously used in the same study by Sigmundsson et al. (2025). The participants responded with how much they agreed with the statement ranging from 1 (disagree) to 5 (agree). This study showed a strong reliability score with a Cronbach's alpha of α = 0.79.
The study also included an 8-item scale capturing the participants' human functioning by Diener et al. (2010). It includes statements such as “I am competent and capable in the activities that are important to me” and “my social relationships are supportive and rewarding.” The participants were asked to respond on these items on a 7-point scale ranging from, 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A high score on the FS scale indicates a high level of eudaimonic wellbeing. Previous research using the FS have shown good internal consistency, α = 0.87 (Diener et al., 2010). This study's Cronbach's alpha was also high, α = 0.93.
3.3 Data analysis
Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 30 for Windows. Data was screened for normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity to ensure the appropriateness of parametric analyses. Independent samples t-test were carried out to explore potential differences between boys and girls across all included variables in the study. Pearson's correlation was used to explore the relationships between variables. Fisher's r-to-z transformation was used to identify significant gender differences in correlation coefficients. All tests were two-tailed, and statistical significance was established at the conventional threshold of p < 0.05.
4 Results
Based on the descriptive baseline values for the various outcome variables (see Table 1), gender differences were assessed using t-tests. Across the full sample (N = 7,260) adolescents reported high levels of school wellbeing (M = 4.51, SD = 0.55) and school safety (M = 4.57, SD = 0.60). The participants reported relatively high levels of compassion for others (M = 6.97, SD = 1.65), self-compassion (M = 6.68, SD = 1.82), and received compassion (M = 6.37, SD = 1.95). Growth mindset (M = 4.07, SD = 0.66), passion (M = 3.84, SD = 0.71), self-efficacy (M = 2.94, SD = 0.53), courage (M = 2.72, SD = 0.48), and grit (M = 2.99, SD = 0.52) were reported at moderate levels. Adolescents also reported a moderately high level of flourishing (M = 5.16, SD = 1.38).
Table 1. Gender differences in adolescents' psychological and school-related variables (N = 7260).
Boys reported higher wellbeing at school than girls t (7258) = 5.85, p < 0.001, d = 0.14, and reported feeling safer at school than girls t (7258) = 11.55, p < 0.001, d = 0.27. Girls indicated significantly higher compassion for others than boys t (7258) = −25.48, p < 0.001, d = −0.60. When it comes to self-compassion however, boys scored higher than girls t (7258) = 6.21, p < 0.001, d = 0.15. Conversely, girls reported receiving more compassion from others than boys (M = 6.25), t (7258) = −5.19, p < 0.001, d = −0.12. Boys scored higher than girls on growth mindset t (7258) = 9.64, p < 0.001, d = 0.23 and self-efficacy t (7258) = 9.49, p < 0.001, d = 22. Boys also reported higher passion t (7258) = 10.95, p < 0.001, d = 0.26, and grit than girls t (7258) = 10.24, p < 0.001, d = 0.24. Boys also reported higher courage than girls t (7258) = 16.53, p < 0.001, d = 0.39. No gender difference was found in the adolescents flourishing t (7258) = 0.51, p = 0.606, d = 0.01.
Correlation analysis for the whole sample displayed significant positive correlations observed between all variables (see Table 2). The three strongest correlations include passion and growth mindset (r = 0.68, p < 0.001), school wellbeing and safety (r = 0.63, p < 0.001), plus received compassion and self-compassion (r = 0.61, p < 0.001). The three weakest correlations were between compassion for others school safety (r = 0.13 p < 0.001), grit and compassion for others (r = 0.15, p < 0.001) and courage-school wellbeing (r = 0.16, p < 0.001).
Table 2. Correlation matrix for the whole group (N = 7260).
Table 3 shows correlations for boys and girls separately with all correlations being statistically significant (p < 0.001). A Fisher's r-to-z transformation indicated statistically significant differences between boys and girls in correlations with most being small in effect size. Effect size was calculated with Cohens q. In girls, self-efficacy had a stronger relationship than boys to other variables such as passion (r = 0.41 vs. r = 0.37, p < 0.05, q = 0.05), growth mindset (r = 0.54 vs. r = 0.44, p < 0.001, q = 0.13), grit (r = 0.42 vs. r = 0.33, p < 0.001, q = 0.10), school safety (r = 0.31 vs. r = 0.20, p < 0.001, q = 0.12) and school wellbeing (r = 0.30 vs. r = 0.25, p < 0.01, q = 0.05). Conversely, the correlation between compassion for others and self-compassion was significantly lower in girls than in boys (r = 0.40, vs. r = 0.59, p < 0.001, q = 0.25). Boys also had a stronger correlation between received compassion and self-compassion (r = 0.57 vs. r = 0.44, p < 0.001, q = 0.18). The correlation between school safety and school wellbeing was stronger for girls compared to boys (r = 0.67 vs r = 0.59, p < 0.001, q = 0.13). Similarly, receiving compassion was more strongly associated with school wellbeing (r = 0.41 vs. r = 0.37, p < 0.05, q = 0.05) and flourishing (r = 0.37 vs. r = 0.29, p < 0.001 q = 0.09) in girls.
Table 3. Correlation matrix for boys (n = 3539) and girls (n = 3721).
5 Discussion
The goal of this paper was to get a better understanding of psychological factors that can contribute to adolescent wellbeing and resilience with a special attention to gender differences. The article examines the levels of these factors and investigates the relationships among motivational traits (passion, grit, growth mindset, and self-efficacy), social and emotional resources (compassion and courage), and wellbeing indicators (flourishing, school safety, and school wellbeing).
5.1 Gender difference in school safety and wellbeing
This study's results (Table 1) suggest that levels of safety and wellbeing among Norwegian adolescents are generally at a high level which is also in line with previous findings from national surveys (Bakken, 2024; Wendelborg, 2024). However, the current study found a small, but statistically significant gender difference in both school safety and wellbeing, with boys scoring higher than girls. This is in line with previous findings by Mori et al. (2022) also suggesting that Norwegian middle school girl students report to be less safe in the school environment. There has been a documented decline in wellbeing particularly among Norwegian middle school girls over the past decade (Bakken, 2019; Wendelborg, 2024).
The results also indicated a gender difference in correlations with safety in school. Research has suggested a strong link between safety in school and school wellbeing (Lester and Cross, 2015; Mori et al., 2022). The findings of this study indicate a strong association between school wellbeing and perceived safety among middle school students. However, the correlation was significantly higher for girls compared to boys (r = 0.67 vs. r = 0.59, q = 0.13). Though the effect size is quite small it may suggest girls are a little bit more reliant on safety in school than boys to thrive. Other than school-wellbeing, received compassion was the most significant difference with girls having significantly higher correlation to safety in school than boys (r = 0.40 vs. r = 0.31, q = 0.10). Self-efficacy and self-compassion were also greater related to school-wellbeing and safety in girls than in boys though they were very small (q < 0.10).
The stronger links between compassion, self-efficacy, and school safety in girls may reflect their greater prosocial tendencies and heightened sensitivity to social dynamics regarding safety at school (Rose and Rudolph, 2006). Girls also tend to report lower self-confidence, which could increase the relevance of self-efficacy and self-compassion for their sense of safety in school. A recent meta-analysis by Liao et al. (2021) found that self-compassion correlates with self-efficacy and suggested that self-compassion may serve as a buffer against decline in self-efficacy following failures. Building on these findings, the current study suggests that girls report lower levels of both self-compassion and self-efficacy and show a stronger correlation between these constructs than boys. Since boys exhibit greater self-compassion, they may not get the same decline in self-efficacy, potentially contributing to greater wellbeing and safety in school.
Flourishing is another measure of wellbeing included in this study to examine the eudaimonic perspective of their wellbeing. The participants reported medium to high levels of flourishing indicating that most Norwegians at the start of middle school experience relatively high levels of psychological functioning. This is also in line with previous nationwide reports in Norway (Bakken, 2024). The current study found no significant gender difference in levels of adolescent flourishing and research in other countries has shown mixed findings (Parola and Marcionetti, 2022; Waigel and Lemos, 2023). The lack of consistency in findings in the literature may stem from cultural factors and variations in sample characteristics, particularly the broad age grouping in the same studies (13–18 years). This highlights the need for more age- and context-specific research on eudaimonic wellbeing in adolescents, ideally by distinguishing between middle school and high school students to better capture developmental and contextual differences.
5.2 Gender differences in motivation
The study found a small but statistically significant difference in levels of passion, grit, growth mindset and self-efficacy in favor of boys which is mostly in line with previous research on these general motivational factors. Some research argue that the male brain tends to be more sensitive to dopamine in response to goal-directed, novelty-seeking, and reward-based activities, thus their engagement and persistence in goals aligned with personal interests can often be higher (Dhingra et al., 2021; Sigmundsson et al., 2020b; Sigmundsson and Haga, 2024b; Weinstein, 2023). For instance, Sigmundsson and Leversen (2024) suggests males are more reliant on passion rather than grit to engage in an activity. They also suggest that males tend to engage more in activities they are passionate about, partly explained by difference in reward system mechanisms.
The results of this study may seem counter intuitive since girls generally have higher academic achievements, however, the study's instruments intend to capture a general motivation related to achievement which is not necessarily limited to academic motivation only, where female tend to score higher (Røed et al., 2025). Additionally, multiple studies across different cultures have shown that boys tend to overestimate their abilities across various domains, whereas girls are more likely to underestimate or more accurately assess their competencies, even when actual performance is equivalent or superior (Bleidorn et al., 2016). This pattern is particularly evident in domain-specific areas, such as math or science, but smaller gender differences have also been observed in constructs as general self-efficacy (Huang, 2012).
Previous research has shown that adult females generally report higher levels of grit than males (Christensen and Knezek, 2014; Kannangara et al., 2018; Sigmundsson et al., 2020b; Sigmundsson, 2021). In contrast, this study found that girls reported lower grit scores. However, the positive correlations between grit and constructs such as growth mindset, self-efficacy, self-compassion, and flourishing suggest that girls may derive greater psychological benefits from grit compared to boys. Also, since the previous studies include older subjects, it may suggest that girls increasingly integrate grit into their motivational framework as they mature, potentially explaining the higher grit levels observed in adult females. However, further longitudinal research is needed to examine this developmental trajectory.
Interestingly, the current study suggests small gender differences in the correlations between passion, grit, growth mindset, and self-efficacy, mostly in favor of girls. While boys may report higher average levels on some of these traits, adolescent girls show a more coherent and interdependent relationship between them. For instance, girls with a strong growth mindset are more likely to also report higher levels of self-efficacy and grit, indicating a potentially more synergistic motivational profile. Moreover, this study indicates gender differences in the relationships between grit and both growth mindset and self-efficacy, with slightly stronger associations among girls. It could suggest that grit may be a more influential factor for general motivation and self-belief for girls. Previous studies suggest girls report less confidence in their own abilities and motivation compared to boys, despite the academic achievements of girls being significantly higher in Norway (Røed et al., 2025). Girls mature faster than boys on average, which may also explain female's advantage of self-control in adolescence (Duckworth and Gross, 2014). Further, this may also explain why girls get more benefits from grit, as it is also more closely tied to self-control than other motivational factors such as passion.
5.3 Gender differences in compassion
Consistent with previous research, adolescent girls tend to report significantly higher levels of compassion toward others compared to boys in our study (López et al., 2017; Pommier et al., 2019; Trentini et al., 2021). Christov-Moore et al. (2014) propose that such gender differences in empathy may have evolutionary and developmental roots, as females generally exhibit greater emotional responsivity and prosocial behavior. At the same time, sociocultural influences also appear to play a significant role in reinforcing empathic tendencies in girls, with cultural expectations often encouraging nurturing and emotionally attuned behavior (Löffler and Greitemeyer, 2021). The differences are thus likely to be shaped by a complex interplay of biological and environmental factors. For instance, puberty-related hormonal and emotional shifts can cause elevated emotional awareness and increased societal pressures (particularly those related to appearance) that may contribute to a more active internal critical voice in adolescent girls (Viner, 2014). Such pressures may also help explain why gender differences in self-compassion are consistently observed during adolescence, with girls typically reporting slightly lower self-compassion than boys (Ferrari et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023; Yarnell et al., 2015). This difference can partly be attributed to girls' greater tendency toward self-judgment, feelings of isolation, and over-identification with negative emotions (Li et al., 2023), suggesting that while girls may show more compassion toward others, they may simultaneously struggle to extend that same compassion to themselves.
The current study also found a strong positive correlation between received compassion and self-compassion among adolescents (r = 0.61), with no gender differences, supporting the theory that compassionate interactions from others may contribute to self-directed compassion across both genders and vice versa (Neff, 2003; Gilbert, 2009). Adolescents who frequently experience care and understanding from others may internalize these experiences, promoting a more supportive inner dialogue. Those higher in self-compassion may also perceive others as more compassionate, potentially due to more positive social cognitions. Furthermore, a significant positive correlation was observed between self-compassion and compassion toward others (r = 0.51), aligning with research suggesting that self-compassion may provide a foundation for extending compassion externally (Neff and Germer, 2017).
Kleppang et al. (2023) suggest that Norwegian adolescents who reported greater support from friends, parents, or teachers had significantly higher self-efficacy scores than those who perceived less social support. Additionally, their findings suggest the relationship between social support and self-efficacy is not necessarily stronger for females compared to males. Contrary to their findings, this study found that girls have a stronger correlation between received compassion and self-efficacy than boys. One could however argue that receiving compassion is just one part of what makes up our social support as it is a broad construct often measured with additional concepts such as instrumental and informational support. It is possible that emotional support such as compassion from others promotes more self-efficacy in girls than boys, perhaps making it an effective tool for self-efficacy interventions.
Given the strong link between received compassion and perceived safety in school, especially for girls, increasing compassionate behaviors among boys could have a positive ripple effect on the entire school climate (Kirby and Kirby, 2017; Montero-Carretero et al., 2021). The present study found that increased compassion toward others in boys is significantly more correlated with both self- and received compassion compared to girls. These findings could inform future interventions that promoting received compassion in boys and developing self-compassion in boys may be effective tools to increase their compassion toward others.
5.4 Gender differences in courage
The result of the study suggests moderate gender differences in courage in favor of boys, whilst previous studies have shown mixed findings (Ginevra et al., 2018; Parola and Marcionetti, 2022). Gender differences in courage may partially reflect broader patterns in risk-taking behavior since most literature suggests that males are more prone to risky behavior, especially at younger ages such as adolescence (Byrnes et al., 1999; Goddings et al., 2023). Another perspective could hint toward perceived competence being a key element of courage. In the current study, self-efficacy had the strongest correlation to courage (r = 0.41), suggesting that perceived competence plays a significant role. Further, lower levels of courage among females may be linked to increased vulnerability to anxiety, as courage is considered a key component in exposure-based interventions for anxiety disorders (Norton and Weiss, 2009; Muris, 2009). Self-efficacy can thus be an important factor in supporting courage among adolescent and thus creating a positive spiral where the fear is lessened with each mastery experience, making it easier to be brave in face of difficulty.
5.5 Gendered pathways to resilience
Most of the included variables in this study likely work bi-directionally. For example, more self-compassion is associated with better wellbeing and healthier and more compassionate relationships, which in turn promote self-care and psychological resilience, and vice versa (Bluth et al., 2018; Marsh et al., 2018; Neff and Germer, 2017; Neuenschwander and Gunten, 2024). Motivational factors such as passion, grit and mindset also has shown to have bidirectional properties (Park et al., 2020; Sigmundsson et al., 2020b; Sigmundsson, 2021). This contributes to an upward spiral theoretically contributing to psychological resilience, as evidenced by significant correlations among all variables (see Table 2). However, gender differences may influence how these mechanisms operate. For instance, girls generally report lower levels of self-compassion, motivation, and safety plus wellbeing at school compared to boys, which may make them more vulnerable to psychological distress. This is perhaps reflected in the significantly higher reported symptoms of depression and anxiety (Krokstad et al., 2022). As shown in Table 3, the patterns and interactions between variables differ by gender, suggesting that the pathways to upwards spiraling mental health may not be entirely the same for boys and girls.
6 Strengths and limitations
While statistically significant, most gender differences in this study had small effect sizes, meaning real-world implications can be limited. Gender difference tendencies may also vary depending on cultural, situational, and individual factors; thus, one should avoid overgeneralization. However, the study has a large sample consisting of many different types of schools that are small, medium and large in both rural and urban areas in Norway. This may increase its generalizability, across the Norwegian population. The use of correlational data can also be a limitation of this study, as its underlying mechanisms and the direction of effects cannot directly be determined in this sample.
7 Conclusion
This study suggests gender differences in school safety, wellbeing, compassion, courage and motivational constructs among Norwegian eight grade students. While boys reported slightly higher levels of perceived safety and general motivation, girls demonstrated stronger relationship between motivational factors such as self-efficacy, grit, and growth mindset. The findings also suggest that girls' wellbeing might be a bit more tied to perceived safety and compassion that is both received and self-directed. Despite significantly higher compassion for others, girls reported lower self-compassion, potentially reflecting greater internalized pressures and self-critical tendencies. Also, the rise in digital bullying, particularly among girls, may contribute to their reduced sense of safety, and indicates a need to address indirect and less visible forms of peer victimization.
Furthermore, the study argues that psychological constructs such as passion, grit, self-efficacy, growth mindset, compassion and courage may contribute to upward spirals of wellbeing and resilience. Since girls generally report lower levels than boys in these factors except compassion for others, it may make them less psychologically resilient. Boys on the other hand can benefit from more compassion toward others, as it is also connected to psychological resilience factors and may have a positive effect on the compassion received in the whole school environment. This study found that higher compassion for others in boys significantly correlates more with both self-compassion and received compassion than in girls, perhaps indicating a stronger need for compassion-based emotional learning in adolescent boys. Overall, the study suggests that interventions targeting resilience in adolescence may benefit from adjusting to gender-specific needs. Encouraging self-compassion and self-efficacy in girls, while promoting compassion for others in boys, may work to create stronger psychological resilience in both.
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Ethics statement
Ethical approval was not required for the study involving human samples in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements because [reason ethics approval was not required]. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the participants‘ legal guardians/next of kin. Written informed consent was obtained from the minor(s)' legal guardian/next of kin for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.
Author contributions
VL: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MH: Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. IR: Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. HS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This study was funded in part by MOT Norge and their partners. The funders did not play a role in study design, analysis of data, interpretation of results, or writing of the report.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable contributions of all the schools and adolescents that participated in this study.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Keywords: gender differences, wellbeing, psychological resilience, compassion, school safety, motivational factors, courage
Citation: Litlabø VR, Haga M, Richter I and Sigmundsson H (2026) Exploring gender differences in Norwegian eighth-grade students: the role of passion, grit, growth mindset, self-efficacy, compassion, courage, and wellbeing. Front. Educ. 10:1703538. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1703538
Received: 11 September 2025; Revised: 20 November 2025; Accepted: 18 December 2025;
Published: 14 January 2026.
Edited by:
Elisabetta Lombardi, eCampus University, ItalyReviewed by:
Svein Barene, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, NorwayMassimo Ingrassia, University of Messina, Italy
Copyright © 2026 Litlabø, Haga, Richter and Sigmundsson. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Vegard Renolen Litlabø, VmVnYXJkLnIubGl0bGFib0BudG51Lm5v