Lalu Sumardi
Sawaludin1- 1Social Science Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, University of Mataram, Mataram, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia
- 2Social Science Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, University of Pattimura, Kota Ambon, Maluku, Indonesia
- 3Social Science Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Jambi University, Jambi, Indonesia
This study examines the effect of culturally integrated TEE model-based Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy competence and explores differences in students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy based on gender. The field testing employed a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest design with total of 64 students participated in the study, with participants randomly and evenly distributed across the control and experimental groups. Data were collected through questionnaires and cultural literacy tests, and analyzed using MANOVA. Research findings are: (1) The culturally integrated TEE model-based Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials had a statistically significant partial and simultaneous effect on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy competence. (2) Male students demonstrated higher levels of critical thinking and cultural literacy than female students. In the experimental group, the N-gain score for critical thinking was 0.73 for female students and 0.77 for male students. In the control group, the N-gain score was 0.29 for female students and 0.33 for male students. For cultural literacy, the N-gain score in the experimental group was 0.69 for female students and 0.79 for male students, while in the control group it was 0.41 for female students and 0.42 for male students. These findings indicate that the culturally integrated TEE model-based Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials effectively enhance students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy.
1 Introduction
Education aims to foster the development of three key domains in students: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (Chandio et al., 2016). Within the Indonesian educational framework, these domains represent the core objectives of instruction, with the affective domain (attitudes) prioritized over the cognitive (knowledge) and psychomotor (skills) domains (Setiyorini and Setiawan, 2023). Despite this prioritization, all three domains are equally important and must be cultivated in a balanced and integrated manner (Heafford, as cited in Sumardi et al., 2022). In alignment with the demands of 21st-century education, students are also expected to acquire essential competencies, including critical thinking, communication, collaboration, creativity, and innovation, and various forms of literacy (Pacific Policy Research Center, 2010). However, several studies have indicated that Indonesian students’ critical thinking abilities remain insufficiently developed (Rasmawan, 2017; Kirana and Kusairi, 2019). Similarly, levels of literacy, especially cultural literacy, are still relatively low (Sumardi and Wahyudiati, 2022; Villafane and Lewis, 2016).
From a gender perspective, findings from previous studies on students’ critical thinking skills between males and females have yielded divergent results. Research conducted by Sumardi et al. (2025), Wahyudiati (2023, 2024), Bowman et al. (2022), Ho et al. (2020), and Fadli (2019) indicates that male students exhibit superior critical thinking skills compared to their female counterparts. In contrast, studies by Zhang (2019), Wahyudiati et al. (2019), and Nurlu (2017) demonstrate that female students, in fact, possess stronger critical thinking skills than male students. With regard to literacy proficiency, findings from investigations by Tingyan and Jinyu (2023), Mahmoud et al. (2022), Moyer (2011), and Adler (1991) suggest that male students tend to outperform female students in literacy abilities.
Students’ low levels of critical thinking skills adversely affect not only their learning outcomes but also the overall teaching–learning process (Wahyudiati, 2022). The higher students’ critical thinking skills, the more effectively teachers can facilitate the learning process (Švecová et al., 2025). Students who possess strong critical thinking skills are generally more capable of engaging with and following the instruction delivered by their teachers (Rasmawan, 2017). Moreover, high levels of students’ critical thinking skills enable teachers to design and implement more creative and innovative learning experiences (Rohmahwati et al., 2025), as such skills allow greater flexibility in applying contemporary, critical-thinking-oriented instructional models. Literacy skills likewise play a crucial role in shaping both the learning process and student achievement (Asrizal et al., 2025). The stronger students’ literacy abilities, the more effectively teachers can conduct instructional activities, and the more rapidly students are able to master the learning material (Adler, 1991). Students’ literacy competence is also closely linked to their critical thinking skills (Zhang, 2025). In the specific context of cultural literacy, higher cultural literacy proficiency fosters attitudes of openness, moderation, and egalitarianism, which in turn promote constructive collaboration among students and ultimately contribute to improved learning processes and outcomes (Abidin et al., 2023).
Multiple factors have contributed to this condition. One prominent issue is the limited use of innovative, constructivist-oriented learning models in classroom practice (Wahyudiati and Qurniati, 2022; Alkusaeri, 2017). Another significant factor is the scarcity of instructional materials explicitly designed to support the development of critical thinking (Švecová et al., 2025; Qurniati and Wahyudiati, 2023; Karim, 2015). These shortcomings hinder students from engaging actively and independently in constructing knowledge and experiences, thereby impeding the cultivation of critical thinking skills (Singh, 2016; Wiwit and Amir, 2023). Similarly, the low levels of cultural literacy among students are largely attributed to the lack of culturally enriched teaching resources (Qurniati and Wahyudiati, 2023; Sumardi et al., 2024).
This educational challenge is further exacerbated by the accelerating pace of technological advancement, which has profoundly reshaped nearly all aspects of human life (Ontario, 2016). The widespread accessibility of information and the proliferation of digital content have contributed to a more pragmatic, pleasure-seeking, and passive learning orientation among students (Sumardi and Rispawati, 2020). This shift not only undermines students’ moral development but also diminishes their capacity for critical reflection and reasoning (Sumardi, 2023). Moreover, the rapid dissemination of information technology has led to a dilution of cultural values, posing a serious threat to the preservation of national identity and heritage (Wahyudiati, 2022; Alkusaeri, 2017). Compounding these issues is the insufficient integration of cultural elements within instructional materials, which are often not deliberately designed to enhance students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy (Bryant, 2023; Singh, 2016).
In this context, the development and utilization of culturally integrated instructional materials emerge as one of the most effective and efficient strategies for enhancing students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy (Brar et al., 2015; Hanifah, 2014). Empirical evidence supports the significant role of such materials in educational outcomes. For instance, Qurniati and Wahyudiati (2023) found that chemistry teaching materials incorporating Sasak cultural values effectively promoted students’ STEM-related competencies. Ramdani et al. (2021) also reported that science modules based on local wisdom significantly improved learners’ critical thinking skills. Furthermore, Sumardi et al. (2024) demonstrated the effectiveness of the TEE (Task, Explanation, Evaluation) model in fostering students’ scientific attitudes and critical thinking capabilities. Collectively, these studies underscore the potential of culturally grounded and pedagogically structured teaching materials, particularly those employing the TEE framework, in improving both cognitive and cultural competencies among students. Unfortunately, existing instructional materials have not been developed in a manner that systematically integrates the TEE model with cultural content. Consequently, the instructional materials formulated in this study were designed to embed the TEE model within culturally grounded components. It is anticipated that this integrated design will effectively and concurrently foster the development of students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy.
The present study is thus motivated by the urgent need to develop such instructional resources, particularly for junior secondary school students. It focuses on the development of a culturally integrated Pancasila and Civic Education module based on the TEE model. This model systematically incorporates cultural content into the structure of learning activities (Sumardi et al., 2024), positioning students within meaningful, real-life contexts that allow them to engage in scientific inquiry rooted in their cultural heritage (Frambach et al., 2012). The integration of cultural values is especially relevant to Pancasila and Civic Education, which inherently encompasses philosophical, ethical, and cultural dimensions that align well with the principles and objectives of national education (Sumardi et al., 2022). The research aims to address the following questions: (1) What is the effect of culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills?; (2) What is the effect of culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ cultural literacy?; (3) What is the combined effect of culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy?; (4) How do students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy differ based on gender?
The hypotheses to be tested in this study are as follows:
Ha1: There is a significant effect of the culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills.
Ho1: There is no significant effect of the culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills.
Ha2: There is a significant effect of the culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ cultural literacy.
Ho2: There is no significant effect of the culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ cultural literacy.
Ha3: There is a significant effect of the culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy.
Ho3: There is no significant effect of the culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy.
2 Literature review
2.1 State of the art
Previous studies on the relevance and integration of culture in teaching materials have been extensively conducted across various disciplines, including Civic Education, English Education, Chemistry Education, Physics Education, Social Science Education, Mathematics Education, and others. Notable research addressing this issue includes studies by Feng and Liu (2024), Sheng (2025), Sara et al. (2025), Sumardi et al. (2024), Wahyudiati and Fitriani (2021), Limba and Suharlan (2020), and Santoso and Wuryandani (2020).
The study conducted by Feng and Liu (2024) demonstrates that the integration of traditional Chinese culture into English language instruction significantly enhances students’ learning interest and motivation. Similarly, research by Sheng (2025) indicates that incorporating traditional Chinese cultural elements into instructional models can increase students’ English proficiency by 0.5–7.5% compared to other models. Furthermore, the study by Sara et al. (2025) provides evidence that integrating the Sámi language into instruction in Norway facilitates students’ mastery of the material being taught. The study conducted by Sumardi et al. (2024) found that Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials developed using the TEE model were effective in enhancing students’ critical thinking skills. Research by Wahyudiati and Fitriani (2021) also found that Sasak local wisdom serves not only as a substantive source of learning in Chemistry Education but also functions effectively as a learning strategy. Similarly, Tasrif (2021) demonstrated that integrating Mbojo local wisdom (Maja Labo Dahu) plays a significant role in fostering student character. The study by Santoso and Wuryandani (2020) further confirmed that integrating local wisdom into teaching materials can significantly enhance learning outcomes. Additionally, the research by Limba and Suharlan (2020) showed that the Kanikir local wisdom of the Central Maluku community was effective in improving the quality of Physics instruction.
These findings collectively highlight the beneficial role of local wisdom in enriching both the learning process and its outcomes. Its versatility allows it to be employed as a learning resource as well as a pedagogical approach, with demonstrated effectiveness across diverse subject areas. Given this evidence, there is a compelling rationale for conducting a study that focuses specifically on the development of Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials integrated with Sasak local wisdom. The richness and relevance of Sasak cultural values offer a promising foundation for enhancing students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy. Importantly, this study distinguishes itself from previous research by explicitly embedding Sasak local wisdom within the context of Pancasila and Civic Education at the junior secondary school level an approach that aligns closely with both the content and philosophical foundations of the subject.
2.2 Theoretical study
Ethnic-based learning has become an increasingly prominent area of focus within educational research, reflecting a growing recognition of the pivotal role culture plays in shaping children’s learning experiences (Slavin, 2000). Empirical evidence supports this perspective, indicating that culturally contextualized learning environments foster higher student engagement and academic achievement. For instance, research by Sutrisno et al. (2020) revealed that students demonstrate heightened enthusiasm when instruction is embedded in cultural contexts. Similarly, Fadli and Irwanto (2020) reported that incorporating local wisdom into classroom instruction significantly enhances students’ academic performance. Further supporting this view, Wahyudiati and Fitriani (2021) found that teaching materials enriched with Sasak local wisdom not only improve the learning process but also yield better educational outcomes. Expanding the scope, studies by Sumardi et al. (2022) and Sumardi and Wahyudiati (2022), Sumardi and Wahyudiati (2023) have shown that Sasak cultural values are holistically aligned with the broader educational system, extending from curriculum design and infrastructure to instructional strategies and assessment practices.
This increasing emphasis on culture in education is also driven by a broader awareness of the role education plays in cultural preservation and transformation. Consequently, there is a growing interest in developing culturally integrated teaching materials. In this context, Pancasila and Civic Education has begun to incorporate cultural elements, specifically through the ethnocivic approach (Sumardi, 2023). Ethnocivic refers to the integration of local cultural practices, values, and traditions that are pedagogically and substantively relevant to the aims of Pancasila and Civic Education. This concept parallels that of ethnochemistry, wherein cultural content is used as a pedagogical tool to support science education, particularly in Chemistry (Singh, 2016; Wahyudiati and Fitriani, 2021). The term ethno itself refers to cultural communities whose collective traditions, symbols, and belief systems shape their interpretation and transmission of knowledge (Rosa and Orey, 2011).
A substantial body of literature supports the educational benefits of culturally integrated learning. For example, Unodiaku et al. (2013) found that using cultural artifacts as instructional resources contributes positively to student competency development. Similarly, studies by Ador and Norolyn (2017) and Singh (2016) indicate that integrating local wisdom into science instruction, particularly Chemistry, enhances students’ scientific dispositions and deepens their understanding of human rights.
Concerning the specific compatibility between Sasak local wisdom and the content of Pancasila and Civic Education, studies by Fitriani et al. (2024) and Fauziah et al. (2023) affirm that the vast majority of topics within both junior and senior secondary curricula are congruent with Sasak cultural principles. Only 2 of the 16 core topics specifically those concerning the organization and function of governmental institutions and the dynamics between central and regional authorities were deemed less relevant (Sumardi et al., 2022). Given this strong thematic alignment, integrating Sasak local wisdom into Pancasila and Civic Education is not only feasible but pedagogically justified. This compatibility constitutes the central rationale for the present study.
3 Research method
3.1 Model development
The development procedure for the culturally integrated TEE model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials followed the development stages proposed by Borg and Gall (1983:66). This process consists of seven key stages: (1) preliminary study, (2) planning, (3) development of teaching materials, (4) validation, (5) revision, (6) field testing, and (7) dissemination of research findings through seminars and publication in reputable international journals.
The instructional materials developed in this study consist of a culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Civic Education module presented in print (non-digital) form. These materials were implemented in the experimental class, whereas the control class utilized different, conventional instructional materials. The structure of the TEE-based instructional materials comprises three core components: task, explanation, and evaluation. The task component is presented in the form of cultural illustrations accompanied by task descriptions that students are required to complete based on the depicted cultural elements. The cultural elements integrated into the materials include cultural products such as traditional music, dance, and attire. The explanation component provides a detailed elaboration of the content aligned with the learning topic. Meanwhile, the evaluation component contains a set of questions designed to assess students’ mastery of the material covered.
The design of the developed Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials adopts the culturally integrated TEE (Task–Explanation–Evaluation) model. Once the materials were successfully developed, the next phase involved field testing to determine the feasibility, validity, reliability, and effectiveness of the materials in enhancing students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy. The field test was conducted at Junior High School 7, Mataram, Indonesia, involving 64 students divided into a control group and an experimental group, with 32 students in each. The selection of the research sample was conducted using a random sampling technique, taking into account the students’ abilities and gender representation.
The testing employed a quasi-experimental pre-test and post-test control group design (Campbell and Stanley, 1963), as presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Trial design.
The instructional trial was conducted on different days and facilitated by the same subject teacher, with an equivalent duration of instruction for each session. In the experimental class, the core learning activities followed the sequence outlined in the developed instructional materials. The lesson commenced with students completing tasks involving content analysis, identification of similarities and differences, and interpretation of cultural images. In the subsequent stage, students were required to read the material explanations, develop a thorough understanding of the content, and compare their initial responses with the explanations provided in the instructional materials. During this phase, the teacher also reinforced key concepts and content. The next stage involved students completing evaluation items designed to assess their mastery of the material. In the control class, the core learning activities began with students reading the material from a conventional textbook, followed by teacher-led elaboration and reinforcement of the content, and concluding with an evaluation.
3.2 Research data collection techniques and instruments
Data collection in this study was conducted using both test and non-test techniques. The test technique was used to measure students’ critical thinking skills, while the non-test technique was conducted to obtain data on students’ cultural literacy. The product validation instruments included face validity and logical validity (Wahyudiati and Fitriani, 2021). Face validity aimed to assess the quality of the developed teaching materials based on theoretical soundness, whereas logical validity focused on evaluating the coherence and relevance of each component within the teaching materials. Critical thinking tests and cultural literacy questionnaires were used to measure students’ competencies in these two areas. These measurements were conducted both before and after the intervention. The goal of these assessments was to determine the effectiveness of the developed teaching materials.
3.3 Research data analysis techniques
The data analyzed in this study included: (1) students’ critical thinking skills, (2) students’ cultural literacy skills, and (3) differences in students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy skills based on gender. These data were analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) (Hair et al., 2010) with SPSS 23 at a 5% significance level. This analysis technique will provide accurate answers to the research hypothesis.
4 Results and discussion
4.1 Prerequisite test
Before conducting the hypothesis testing, assumption testing was carried out using the MANOVA technique. The purpose of assumption testing is to ensure whether hypothesis testing can be performed validly. The assumption tests included a normality test, Box’s M test, and a multicollinearity test. The results of the normality test showed that the residuals met the assumption of normality, with a significance value greater than 0.05, namely 0.106. The result of Box’s M test indicated a significance value of 0.371, which is higher than 0.05, thereby fulfilling the assumption of homogeneity of variance–covariance matrices in MANOVA. Likewise, the multicollinearity test results showed no multicollinearity among the independent variables, as the VIF values were less than 10. Thus, the analysis could proceed to hypothesis testing.
4.2 The effect of culturally integrated TEE model-based Pancasila and civic education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills
The first hypothesis tested in this study concerns the effect of the culturally integrated TEE model of Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills. The hypothesis test was conducted to determine whether the teaching materials had a significant effect on students’ critical thinking skills (Ha), or conversely, whether they had no significant effect (Ho). The results of the hypothesis test regarding the effect of the culturally integrated TEE model of Pancasila Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Univariate hypothesis test results.
Based on Table 2, the significance value is 0.000, which is less than 0.05. This indicates that the culturally integrated TEE model of Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials has a significant effect on students’ critical thinking skills. In other words, the teaching materials are effective in improving students’ critical thinking skills. Therefore, based on the analysis results, the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is accepted and the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected.
The research findings above show that the culturally integrated Pancasila and Civic Education teaching material model can significantly improve students’ critical thinking skills. The observed improvement in students’ critical thinking abilities can be attributed to the structural design of the TEE model-based teaching materials. Rather than engaging students with content directly, each topic begins with a task that encourages independent thought and problem-solving (Sumardi et al., 2024). These initial tasks are presented in the form of questions or statements that prompt students to apply higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis, evaluation, synthesis, and interpretation, core components of critical thinking (Khusniati et al., 2017; Suardana et al., 2018). When incorporated into the learning process, these problem-based tasks foster a deeper and more sustained development of critical thinking skills (Uzunoz and Demirhan, 2017; Wahyudiati and Qurniati, 2022).
These findings corroborate the results reported by Sumardi et al. (2024), who confirmed the efficacy of the TEE instructional model in enhancing critical thinking. Likewise, Huang et al. (2023) found that task-oriented learning significantly contributes to the development of students’ critical thinking skills. Additional studies by Karim (2015), Fadli (2019), and Lativa and Alberida (2019) further substantiate the role of problem-solving strategies in promoting higher-order thinking. Moreover, Rahmi et al. (2023) emphasized that teaching materials grounded in local wisdom significantly improve critical thinking capacities among students.
In addition, this study also analyzed students’ critical thinking skills in terms of gender. The differences in critical thinking skills between male and female students can be observed from the N-gain scores between the experimental and control groups, as presented in Table 3 and Figure 1.
Table 3. Results of N-gain critical thinking ability score based on gender.
Figure 1. Students’ critical thinking skills based on gender.
Based on the data analysis presented in Table 3 and Figure 1, it is evident that male students demonstrate stronger critical thinking skills than their female counterparts. In the experimental group, the critical thinking skills of male students reached a high level with an N-gain score of 0.77, whereas female students reached a medium level with an N-gain score of 0.73. Similarly, in the control group, although both male and female students remained at a low level of critical thinking, the N-gain score for male students (0.33) was higher than that of female students (0.29). These results suggest that male students exhibited better critical thinking skills than female students.
From a gender-based perspective, the study revealed that male students exhibited higher levels of critical thinking compared to their female counterparts. These results are consistent with earlier studies, including those by Ho et al. (2020), Bowman et al. (2022), and Sumardi et al. (2025), which demonstrated that male students often outperform females in STEM-related competencies. Similarly, research conducted by Wahyudiati (2024) and Fadli (2019) reported that male students showed stronger problem-solving skills, while Wahyudiati (2023) observed that they also demonstrated greater proficiency in reasoning and evaluation tasks, both indicators of critical thinking.
The gender disparities in critical thinking skills may be partly explained by inherent cognitive and emotional differences. As noted by Maccoby and Jacklin (Perez-Luño et al., 2023), males tend to be more logic-driven, while females are often more emotionally oriented. This perspective is supported by Costa et al. (1992), who argued that emotional expression is generally more prevalent among females. Such gender-based traits may contribute to the differential development of critical thinking abilities observed in this study.
4.3 The effect of integrated TEE model Pancasila and civic education teaching materials on students’ cultural literacy competence
The second hypothesis tested in this study concerns whether the culturally integrated TEE model of Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials has a significant effect on students’ cultural literacy skills (Ha), or conversely, whether it does not have a significant effect (Ho). The results of this hypothesis testing are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Univariate hypothesis test results.
Based on the hypothesis test results presented in Table 4, the significance value was found to be 0.000. This indicates that the culturally integrated TEE model of Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials has a statistically significant effect on students’ cultural literacy skills. This analysis further confirms that the teaching materials effectively enhance students’ cultural literacy. Therefore, based on these findings, the alternative hypothesis (Ha) is accepted, and the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected.
The research findings above show that the teaching materials are effective in improving students’ cultural literacy skills. The observed improvement in cultural literacy is not solely attributable to the incorporation of cultural elements within the teaching materials (Alkusaeri, 2017; Fadli and Irwanto, 2020; Limba and Suharlan, 2020) but also to the pedagogical structure of the TEE model, which emphasizes the activation of higher-order cognitive processes (Sumardi et al., 2024). This approach aligns closely with conceptualizing literacy as the capacity to comprehend content holistically through logical, systematic, and complex reasoning (Jerebine et al., 2024). Indeed, literacy development is recognized as a multidisciplinary endeavor that can be cultivated through instructional strategies across various educational domains (Waymouth and Hinchman, 2025).
These findings are further reinforced by a body of prior research demonstrating the effectiveness of educational interventions in fostering cultural literacy. For instance, Mangkhang et al. (2024) established that well-structured learning activities significantly enhance middle school students’ cross-cultural competencies. Abidin et al. (2023) observed that the use of folklore reality-based instructional media improved elementary students’ literacy abilities. Similarly, studies conducted by Yang et al. (2024), as well as Bao and Boonsrianan (2024), confirmed that teaching materials employed during instruction contribute meaningfully to the development of university students’ literacy skills. More specifically, research by Ninawati and Wahyuni (2020) revealed that local wisdom-based instructional resources significantly strengthened students’ writing literacy at the elementary level. Together, these studies substantiate the present findings regarding the beneficial effects of culturally integrated teaching resources on students’ cultural literacy development.
In addition, this section also analyzes differences in cultural literacy skills between male and female students. The results of this analysis are reflected in the N-gain scores from both the experimental and control groups, as presented in Table 5 and Figure 2.
Table 5. Results of N-gain cultural literacy scores based on gender.
Figure 2. Students’ cultural literacy based on gender.
Based on the data analysis presented in Table 5 and Figure 2, it was found that male students demonstrated higher cultural literacy skills than female students. In the experimental group, male students achieved a high level of cultural literacy with an N-gain score of 0.79, whereas female students reached a medium level with an N-gain score of 0.69. In the control group, both male and female students were at a low level of cultural literacy; however, the N-gain score for male students (0.42) was still slightly higher than that of female students (0.41).
Concerning gender differences, these research findings suggest that male students demonstrated a higher degree of cultural literacy development than their female peers. This outcome aligns with previous research highlighting the role of gender in shaping students’ literacy competencies. Studies by Cui et al. (2023) and Mahmoud et al. (2022) indicated that gender significantly influences literacy performance. Similarly, Moyer (2011) and Adler (1991) reported that male students tend to exhibit stronger cultural literacy skills compared to female students. These findings collectively underscore the influence of gender-related factors in literacy acquisition. One explanatory factor often cited in the literature is the role of cultural norms and gender-based disparities, which may contribute to unequal educational outcomes in literacy development (Ambreen and Mohyuddin, 2012).
4.4 The effect of culturally integrated TEE model Pancasila and civic education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy competence
The third hypothesis tested in this study was the effect of the culturally integrated TEE model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy simultaneously. The hypothesis tested was whether the culturally integrated TEE model Pancasila Education teaching materials had a significant effect on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy (Ha), or conversely, whether there was no significant effect of the teaching materials on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy (Ho). The results of this hypothesis test are presented in Table 6.
Table 6. Multivariate hypothesis test results.
Based on the results of the hypothesis test presented in Table 6, it was found that the culturally integrated TEE model Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials had a statistically significant simultaneous effect on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy, as indicated by a significance value of 0.000. These findings demonstrate that the teaching materials are effective in simultaneously enhancing both students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy skills. Therefore, the data support the acceptance of Ha and the rejection of Ho.
This finding is particularly valuable for efforts to develop students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy skills, as it shows that both competencies can be fostered simultaneously through a single instructional instrument. It reinforces the conclusions of previous studies by Brar et al. (2015) and Hanifah (2014), which stated that teaching materials serve as effective and efficient tools for promoting critical thinking and literacy skills. Teaching materials are not merely vehicles for content delivery (Susilaningsih et al., 2022), but they also play a key role in enhancing students’ critical thinking (Sumardi et al., 2024; Ramdani et al., 2021) and literacy skills (Bao and Boonsrianan, 2024; Ninawati and Wahyuni, 2020).
5 Conclusion
Based on the findings and discussion of the study, it can be concluded that the culturally integrated TEE (Task, Explanation, Evaluation) model-based Pancasila and Civic Education teaching materials are highly effective in enhancing students’ critical thinking and cultural literacy competence. The teaching materials demonstrated not only partial effectiveness but also a significant simultaneous impact on both skill areas. Therefore, these teaching materials offer a viable solution to address the persistent issues of low critical thinking and cultural literacy among students. Another conclusion that can be drawn from this study is that male students have better critical thinking skills and cultural literacy competencies than female students.
This study acknowledges several limitations. First, the culturally integrated TEE-model Pancasila and Citizenship Education teaching materials developed herein are not readily generalizable to all instructional topics or subject domains, given their contextual and content-specific design. Moreover, the scope of the present investigation was confined to assessing the materials’ influence on students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy. Consequently, further empirical inquiry is required to evaluate additional cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes, ideally through studies involving larger, more diverse, and methodologically robust samples.
Data availability statement
Derived data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on request. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to LS, bGFsdS51bnJhbUBnbWFpbC5jb20=.
Ethics statement
The studies involving humans were approved by the Institute for Research and Community Service, Universitas Islam Negeri Mataram. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation in this study was provided by the headmaster. We have obtained informed consent from all individuals included in this study.
Author contributions
LS: Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Sawaludin: Supervision, Validation, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. MM: Resources, Investigation, Validation, Writing – review & editing. FS: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision. TS: Validation, Supervision, Writing – review & editing. AS: Project administration, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This research was funded by the University of Mataram.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Rector of the University of Mataram, the Head of the Institute for Research and Community Service of the University of Mataram, and the Dean of the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, University of Mataram, for providing financial support for this research. Appreciation is also extended for the administrative support that contributed to the successful completion of this study.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
References
Abidin, Y., Mulyati, T., Yuniarti, Y., and Nurhuda, T. (2023). The effects of integrating folklore and mixed reality toward student's cultural literacy. Int. J. Soc. Cult. Lang. 11, 307–319. doi: 10.22034/ijscl.2023.1995761.2963
Adler, M. A. (1991). Gender, race, and cultural literacy: consequences for academic performance. Teach. Sociol. 18, 362–371. doi: 10.2307/1317739,
Ador, S., and Norolyn, K. (2017). Ethnochemistry of maguindanaons on the usage house hold chemicals: implication to chemistry education. J. Soc. Sci. 6, 8–16. doi: 10.25255/jss.2017.6.2S.8.26
Alkusaeri, (2017). Development of a mathematics learning model based on Sasak culture. Dissertation. Yogyakarta: Pascasarjana UNY.
Ambreen, M., and Mohyuddin, A. (2012). Cultural factors influencing gender literacy level. Asian J. Soc. Sci. Hum. 1, 109–115. Available at: http://www.ajssh.leena-luna.co.jp/AJSSHPDFs/Vol.1(4)/AJSSH2012(1.4-14).pdf
Asrizal, A., Annisa, N., Ahzari, S., and Helma, H. (2025). Interactive multimedia sound and light waves integrated STEM to develop concept understanding and literacy skills of students. J. Turk. Sci. Educ. 22, 18–32. doi: 10.36681/tused.2025.002.
Bao, L., and Boonsrianan, P. (2024). Teaching resource of Chengdu popular music for fostering literacy and cultural education in China. Int. J. Educ. Liter. Stud. 12, 230–237. doi: 10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.12n.1p.230.
Bowman, N. A., Logel, C., LaCosse, J., Jarratt, L., Canning, E. A., Emerson, K. T., et al. (2022). Gender representation and academic achievement among STEM-interested students in college STEM courses. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 59, 1876–1900. doi: 10.1002/tea.21778,
Brar, S., Fredriksen, B. J., and Trucano, M. (2015). Getting textbooks to every child in Sub-Saharan Africa: strategies for addressing the high cost and low availability problem (English). Directions in development/human development, Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/479151468179972816
Bryant, J. A. Jr. (2023). Gadugi: reclaiming native American education through a culturally reflective pedagogy. Athens J. Educ. 10, 685–700. doi: 10.30958/aje.10-4-7
Campbell,, and Stanley, (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company.
Chandio, M. T., Pandhiani, S. M., and Iqbal, R. (2016). Bloom’s taxonomy: improving assessment and teaching-learning process. J. Educ. Educ. Dev. 3, 201–221. doi: 10.22555/joeed.v3i2.1034
Costa, P. T., and McCrae, R. R. (1992). The five-factor model of personality and its relevance to personality disorders. J. Personal. Disord. 6, 343–359. doi: 10.1521/pedi.1992.6.4.343
Cui, Y., Gu, T., and Zhang, J. (2023). The effect of gender differences on high school students’ English reading comprehension. The international conference on interdisciplinary humanities and communication studies. USA: Saint Mary’s College. 5: 450–455. Available at: https://scispace.com/pdf/the-effect-of-gender-differences-on-high-school-students-2dpsql3w.pdf
Fadli, A. (2019). Problem solving skills and scientific attitudes of prospective teachers based on gender and grades level. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 8, 3595–3599. Available at: https://www.ijstr.org/final-print/oct2019/Problem-Solving-Skills-And-Scientific-Attitudes-Of-Prospective-Teachers-Based-On-Gender-And-Grades-Level.pdf
Fadli, A., and Irwanto, (2020). The effect of local wisdom-based elsii learning model on the problem solving and communication skills of pre-service Islamic teachers. Int. J. Instr. 13, 731–746. doi: 10.29333/iji.2020.13147a
Fauziah, P. N., Sumardi, L., Fauzan, A., and Zubair, M. (2023). Exploring the potential of Sasak local wisdom as a learning resource for civics for junior high school grade IX. Pendas: Jurnal Ilmiah Pendidikan Dasar 8, 2443–2453. doi: 10.23969/jp.v8i02
Feng, Y., and Liu, Q. (2024). The promotion and dissemination of Chinese excellent traditional culture in English teaching in colleges and universities under the background of informatization. Appl. Math. Nonlinear Sci. 9, 1–13. doi: 10.2478/amns.2023.2.00338,
Fitriani, F., Sumardi, L., Kurniawansyah, E., and Sawaludin,. (2024). Ethnocivic: exploration of the potential of Sasak local wisdom as a learning resource for civic education for senior high school grade XI to strengthen students’ character. Jurnal Ilmiah Profesi Pendidikan 9, 794–801. doi: 10.29303/jipp.v9i2.2166
Frambach, J. M., Driessen, E. W., Chan, L., and Vleuten, C. P. M. (2012). Rethinking the globalitations of PBL: how culture challenge self directed learning. Med. Educ. 46, 738–747. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2923.2012.04290.x
Hair, J. F. Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., and Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. 3rd Edn. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Hanifah, U. (2014). The importance of quality teaching materials in increasing the effectiveness of Arabic language learning. AtTajdid Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pemikiran Islam 3, 99–122. Available at: http://repository.uinsa.ac.id/id/eprint/2181
Ho, M.-T., La, V.-P., Nguyen, M.-H., Pham, T.-H., Vuong, T.-T., Vuong, H.-M., et al. (2020). An analytical view on STEM education and outcomes: examples of the social gap and gender disparity in Vietnam. Child Youth Serv. Rev. 119:105650. doi: 10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105650
Huang, L., Li, X., Meng, Y., Lei, M., Niu, Y., Wang, S., et al. (2023). The mediating effects of self-directed learning ability and critical thinking ability on the relationship between learning engagement and problem-solving ability among nursing students in southern China: a cross-sectional study. BMC Nurs. 22, 1–9. doi: 10.1186/s12912-023-01280-2
Jerebine, A., Lauren, A., Kimberley, W.-M., Richard, K., Petra, J., Dean, D., et al. (2024). Effects of holistically conceptualised school-based interventions on children’s physical literacy, physical activity, and other outcomes: a systematic review. Sports Med. 10, 1–23. doi: 10.1186/s40798-024-00766-w
Karim, N. (2015). Students' critical thinking skills in mathematics learning using the jucama model in junior high schools. EDU-MAT: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika 3, 92–104. doi: 10.20527/edumat.v3i1.634
Khusniati, M., Parmin,, and Sudarmin,. (2017). Local wisdom-based science learning model through reconstruction of indigenous science to improve student’s conservationist character. J. Turk. Sci. Educ. 14, 16–23. doi: 10.12973/tused.10202a
Kirana, I. E., and Kusairi, S. (2019). Profile of critical thinking ability of science education study program students in the case of one-dimensional kinematics graphs. Jurnal Pendidikan: Teori, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan 4, 363–368. doi: 10.17977/jptpp.v4i3.12113
Lativa, N. A., and Alberida, H. (2019). The influence of problem-solving model toward students’ critical thinking skills. Bioeduc. J. 3, 113–120. doi: 10.24036/bioedu.v3i2.240
Limba, A., and Suharlan, L. (2020). Development of local wisdom-based teaching materials kanikir game in Hitu Lama Village, Leihitu District, Central Maluku regency. Jurnal Biology Science & Education 9, 1–8. doi: 10.33477/bs.v9i1.1315
Mahmoud, Z. D., Hawraa, N. K., Leena, R. S., Hayder, M. J. S. G., Zaid, H. A. A., Wissam, M. H. A., et al. (2022). The gender discrimination and regional difference effect on reading literacy of college students: a case from Iraq. Eurasian J. Appl. Linguist. 8, 45–55. doi: 10.32601/ejal.911540
Mangkhang, C., Singkhaimuk, P., Kaewpanya, N., Borihantanachot, O., and Buttong, C. (2024). Flexible action learning management process to promote cross-cultural literacy of junior high school students. J. Pract. Stud. Educ. 5, 1–7. doi: 10.46809/jpse.v5i6.89
Moyer, J. T. (2011). Lifelong adaptability: a cultural literacy perspective. Revised Edn). Dissertation: University of Akron. Pennsylvania: University of Akron. Available at: http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED528148
Ninawati, M., and Wahyuni, N. (2020). Effectiveness of local wisdom-based teaching materials on elementary school students' writing literacy skills. J. Pemikir. Pengemb. Sekol. Dasar 8, 51–59. doi: 10.22219/jp2sd.v8i1.12056
Nurlu, O. (2017). Developing a teachers’ gender stereotype scale toward mathematics. lnt. Electron. J. Element. Educ. 10, 287–299. doi: 10.26822/iejee.2017236124
Ontario, (2016). Towards defining 21st century competencies for Ontario, 21st century competencies. Ontario: Fondation Document for Discussion.
Pacific Policy Research Center (2010). 21st century skills for students and teachers. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation Division.
Perez-Luño, A., Aguilar-Caro, R., and Muñoz-Doyague, M. F. (2023). The influence of personality and team-member exchange on creativity: a gendered approach. Gender Manag. An Int. J. 39, 145–164. doi: 10.1108/GM-01-2022-0023
Qurniati, D., and Wahyudiati, D. (2023). Improving students’ STEM skills through the development of an e-learning chemistry book integrated with Sasak local wisdom. J. Penelit. Pendidik. IPA 9, 11181–11188. doi: 10.29303/jppipa.v9i12.6278
Rahmi, M., Nurhidayati, S., and Samsuri, T. (2023). The influence of local potential-based teaching materials on students' critical thinking skills and environmental concern. Bioscientist: Jurnal Ilmiah Biologi 11, 685–695. doi: 10.33394/bioscientist.v11i1.7692
Ramdani, A., Jufri, A. W., Gunawan, G., Fahrurrozi, M., and Yustiqvar, M. (2021). Analysis of students’ critical thinking skills in terms of gender using science teaching materials based on the 5e learning cycle integrated with local wisdom. J. Pendidik. IPA Indones. 10, 187–199. doi: 10.15294/jpii.v10i2.29956
Rasmawan, R. (2017). Profile of students' critical thinking skills and its correlation with academic achievement index. EduChemia: Jurnal Kimia dan Pendidikan 2, 130–140. doi: 10.30870/educhemia.v2i2.1101
Rohmahwati, S., Waluya, B., and Noviyanti, M. (2025). Analysis of students’ critical thinking skills in terms of self-efficacy in realistic mathematics education assisted learning android-based media. Int. J. Res. Rev. 12, 311–318. doi: 10.52403/ijrr.20250339
Rosa, M., and Orey, D. C. (2011). Ethnomathematics: the cultural aspects of mathematics. Revista: Latinoamericana de Etnomatemática 4, 32–54. Available at: https://www.revista.etnomatematica.org/index.php/RevLatEm/article/view/32
Santoso, R., and Wuryandani, W. (2020). Development of Civics Teaching Materials Based on Local Wisdom to Increase Cultural Resilience Through Understanding the Concept of Diversity. Jurnal Ketahanan Nasional, 26, 229–248. doi: 10.22146/jkn.56926
Sara, L. M., Äärelä-Vihriälä, R. Ä., and Føreland, L. R. (2025). Building indigenous futures with minecraft: a Sámi educational perspective. J. Ethnopolit. Minor. Issues Eur. 24, 118–143. doi: 10.53779/LEMA0808
Setiyorini, S. R., and Setiawan, D. (2023). Curriculum development towards quality of education in Indonesia. JTP: Jurnal Teknologi Pendidikan 1, 1–12. doi: 10.47134/jtp.v1i1.27
Sheng, W. (2025). Research on the innovative model of English teaching by integrating traditional culture and artificial intelligence. Appl. Math. Nonlinear Sci. 10, 1–25. doi: 10.2478/amns-2025-1090
Singh, I. S., and Chibuye, B. (2016). Effect of ethnochemistry practice on secondary schools’ structure attitude toward chemistry. J. Educ. Pract. 7, 44–56. Available at: https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/31089
Unodiaku,, Stanislus,, and Sochima,. (2013). Effect of ethno-mathematics teaching materials on students’ achievement in mathematics in Enugu state. J. Educ. Pract. 4, 70–77. Available at: https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/article/view/8397
Suardana, I. N., Redhana, I. W., Sudiatmika, A. A. I. A. R., and Selamat, I. N. (2018). Students’ critical thinking skills in chemistry learning using local culture-based e-learning cycle model. Int. J. Instr. 11, 399–412. doi: 10.12973/iji.2018.11227a
Sumardi, L. (2023). Problematic internet use and its impact on cognitive (case study on teaching and learning faculty students, University of Mataram). J. Pendidik. Kewarganegaraan 7, 1–9. doi: 10.31571/jpkn.v7i1.5405
Sumardi, L., Fadli, A., and Fauzan, A. (2025). The effect of SPADA-integrated electronic civic education teaching materials on improving students’ STEM and communication skills. J. Educ. E-Learn. Res. 12, 42–51. doi: 10.20448/jeelr.v12i1.6356
Sumardi, L., Ismail, M., Rispawati,, and Wahyudiati, D. (2022). Beguru: an ethno-education of Sasak, Indonesia (exploring the principles of learning processs & evaluation). J. Innov. Educ. Cult. Res. 3, 114–121. doi: 10.46843/jiecr.v3i2.77
Sumardi, L., and Rispawati, (2020). The use of internet in learning and its impacts on students’ moral values: a case study in Mataram University, Indonesia. J. Crit. Rev. 7, 790–794. doi: 10.31838/jcr.07.14.142
Sumardi, L., and Wahyudiati, D. (2022). Curriculum in local wisdom, beguru: an ethno education of Sasak, Indonesia. J. Xi'an Shiyou Univ. Nat. Sci. Ed. 18, 177–180. Available at: https://www.xisdxjxsu.asia/viewarticle.php?aid=839
Sumardi, L., and Wahyudiati, D. (2023). Ethnic Education of Sasak People in Indonesia: Exploration of the Beguru Principles Related to Educators and Students. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 686, 328–337. doi: 10.2991/978-2-494069-21-3_36
Sumardi, L., Herianto, E., and Yuliatin,. (2024). The effectiveness of teaching materials with TEE patterns in improving students' critical thinking skills and scientific attitudes. Pegem J. Educ. Instr. 14, 184–191. doi: 10.47750/pegegog.14.02.23
Susilaningsih, E., Aprilia, N., and Hayati, S. (2022). The effectiveness of teaching materials loaded with blended learning with a scientific approach on buffer solution learning. J. Inov. Pendidik. Kimia 16, 59–64. doi: 10.15294/jipk.v16i1.33774
Sutrisno, H., Wahyudiati, D., and Louise, I. S. Y. (2020). Ethnochemistry in the chemistry curriculum in higher education: exploring chemistry learning resources in Sasak local wisdom. Univer. J. Educ. Res. 8, 7833–7842. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2020.082572
Švecová, V., Balgová, M., and Uhríková, V. (2025). Development of critical thinking through the creation of mathematical problems. Athens J. Educ. 12, 493–508. doi: 10.30958/aje.12-3-8
Tasrif, A. (2021). The Values of “Maja Labo Dahu” Character Education in Pedagogy. Jurnal Pendidikan Karakter, 11, 88–100. doi: 10.21831/jpk.v0i1.37444
Uzunoz, F. S., and Demirhan, G. (2017). The effect of creative drama on critical thinking in preservice physical education teachers. Thinkong Skills and Creativity 24, 164–174. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2017.02.018
Villafane, S. M., and Lewis, J. E. (2016). Exploring a measure of science attitude for different groups of students enrolled in introductory college chemistry. Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. 17, 731–742. doi: 10.1039/c5rp00185d
Wahyudiati, D. (2022). Exploring chemistry education students' critical thinking skills and ethnochemistry-based learning experiences based on gender. Journal of Xi’an Shiyou University, Natural Science Edition 18, 109–113. Available at: https://www.xisdxjxsu.asia/viewarticle.php?aid=829
Wahyudiati, D. (2023). Enhancing students' communication and STEM reasoning abilities based on gender through application of IT-based chemistry teaching materials. Int. J. Learn. Teach. Educ. Res. 22, 160–179. doi: 10.26803/ijlter.22.5.8
Wahyudiati, D. (2024). The effect of the ethnochemistry approach on students’ problem-solving ability and chemistry learning experiences based on gender. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction 14, 306–314. doi: 10.47750/pegegog.14.04.27
Wahyudiati, D., and Fitriani, (2021). Ethnochemistry: exploring the potential of Sasak local wisdom as a source for learning chemistry. Jurnal Pendidikan Kimia Indonesia 5, 102–111. doi: 10.23887/jpk.v5i2.38537
Wahyudiati, D., and Qurniati, D. (2022). The effect of project-based learning on pre-service chemistry teachers’ self-efficacy and critical thinking skills. Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan IPA 8, 2307–2311. doi: 10.29303/jppipa.v8i5.1834
Wahyudiati, D., Sutrisno, H., and Supiah, I. (2019). Self-efficacy and attitudes toward chemistry of pre-service chemistry teachers: gender and grade level perspective. Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res. 8, 1041–1044. Available at: https://www.ijstr.org/final-print/sep2019/Self-efficacy-And-Attitudes-Toward-Chemistry-Of-Pre-service-Chemistry-Teachers-Gender-And-Grades-Level-Perspective.pdf
Waymouth, H., and Hinchman, K. A. (2025). Fostering equitable disciplinary literacy practices. Educ. Sci. 15:225. doi: 10.3390/educsci15020225
Wiwit,, and Amir, H. (2023). Implementation of basic chemistry learning using power point 2010 media and phet simulation with modification of reciprocal teaching approach based on constructivism. Jurnal Exacta 11, 29–32.
Yang, J., Qiao, J., and Zhang, K. (2024). Research on the path of improving traditional culture literacy of college students based on fuzzy C-mean clustering algorithm. Appl. Math. Nonlinear Sci. 9, 1–15. doi: 10.2478/amns.2023.2.00930,
Zhang, Y. (2019). The effect of metaphorical competence on students’ writing skill. Creat. Educ. 10, 151–155. doi: 10.4236/ce.2019.101011
Keywords: teaching materials, TEE model, culturally-based approach, critical thinking, cultural literacy, secondary school, student
Citation: Sumardi L, Sawaludin, Mustari M, Sialana F, Simaremare TP and Saputri A (2026) The effect of culturally-integrated TEE model teaching materials on secondary school students’ critical thinking skills and cultural literacy competence. Front. Educ. 10:1720212. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1720212
Edited by:
Elsie L. Olan, University of Central Florida, United StatesReviewed by:
Karsono Karsono, Sebelas Maret University, IndonesiaF. Fidrayani, IAIN Pare-Pare, Indonesia
Copyright © 2026 Sumardi, Sawaludin, Mustari, Sialana, Simaremare and Saputri. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Lalu Sumardi, bGFsdS51bnJhbUBnbWFpbC5jb20=