Robert Jay N. Angco- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Cebu Technological University, Cebu City, Philippines
Higher education institutions (HEIs) catalyze community development through extension programs that promote economic empowerment, skill development, social inclusion, environmental sustainability, and leadership capacity. Despite numerous community extension initiatives in Philippine higher education, a comprehensive synthesis of beneficiary experiences remains absent. This qualitative meta-synthesis systematically reviewed qualitative studies (2021–2024) examining beneficiaries’ lived experiences in Philippine HEI extension programs. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, 13 studies meeting Critical Appraisal Skills Program criteria were analyzed using Braun and Clarke’s thematic analysis. Five interconnected themes emerged: (1) Economic Empowerment and Livelihood Enhancement, (2) Skill Development and Capacity Building, (3) Social Inclusion and Community Engagement, (4) Sustainability and Long-Term Impact, and (5) Leadership and Empowerment. These coalesced into an overarching meta-theme: Transformative Community Empowerment through Higher Education Extension Programs. Building upon empowerment theory, community development frameworks, and capability approach, this study proposes the Transformative Community Empowerment Theory (TCET), positing that effective extension programs operate through five interdependent pillars that transform beneficiaries from passive recipients to active change agents. Findings illuminate HEIs’ transformative role in cultivating empowered, self-sustaining communities while strengthening reciprocal HEI-community relationships.
Rationale
In the contemporary educational landscape, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) fulfill four essential functions: instruction, research, extension, and production, with extension representing a mandatory area emphasized by accreditation bodies such as the Accrediting Agency of Chartered Universities and Colleges in the Philippines (AACCUP). Community extension programs at higher education institutions address multiple dimensions of human wellbeing—material, physical, mental, and spiritual—positioning HEIs as critical partners in holistic community development (Magnaye and Ylagan, 2021; Dayao et al., 2024). Extension through educational activities constitutes a vital aspect of community development, challenging institutions to provide extension services to underserved populations as part of their core institutional mandate (Montañez et al., 2024; Berte-Gildore, 2024). This imperative transcends the Philippines, reflecting a global recognition of higher education’s societal responsibilities, with international institutions similarly prioritizing extension alongside instruction and research (Garcia and Uy, 2025).
The Philippines provides compelling examples of transformative extension programming. The Commission on Higher Education (Commission on Higher Education, 2016) explicitly requires all HEIs to maintain extension as one of three most significant institutional functions through Memorandum Order No. 52, Series of 2016 (Quiambao et al., 2020; Adame et al., 2022). One exemplary initiative is Cebu Technological University’s Hinablon sa Cebu project at the Argao Campus—a social enterprise that revitalizes the handloom weaving industry while empowering marginalized communities through livelihood development and innovation. This project, which has achieved global recognition, demonstrates how community extension programs rooted in local cultural heritage can generate sustainable economic opportunities and social transformation (Joy, 2024; Maejan et al., 2024).
The relationship between higher education institutions and society should be reciprocal and mutually beneficial rather than unidirectional. Academic research and technology transfer services enhance teaching and learning practices, while extension services provide students unique opportunities to understand citizenship beyond standard classroom training (Soska and Butterfield, 2013; Malabanan and Dacara, 2024; Terano, 2023). These interactions broaden the significance of academic work while introducing fresh perspectives to the intellectual process, demonstrating extension’s capacity to bridge academic knowledge with community needs (Adame et al., 2022). Dayao et al. (2024) highlighted that many beneficiaries, especially those in underprivileged areas, have experienced improved quality of life through HEI programs and projects, with strengthened ties between communities and HEIs resulting in greater cooperation and trust. For HEI students, community outreach programs offer beneficial opportunities to interact with communities and cultivate critical abilities including leadership, cooperation, and communication, with numerous participants expressing increased fulfillment and purpose (Binayao et al., 2021; Omblero, 2020).
Despite recognized benefits, several challenges hinder effective implementation of HEI extension programs. Financial constraints, scheduling conflicts, limited participant engagement, and insufficient resource persons represent commonly encountered obstacles (Garcia and Uy, 2025). Program implementation challenges related to service delivery, workforce shortages, supervision gaps, and logistical issues, as well as multisectoral and community factors such as inadequate incentives and unmet targets, are evident not only in the Philippines but globally (Zebre et al., 2021; O'Donovan et al., 2018). These implementation challenges underscore the need for evidence-based frameworks guiding effective program design and execution.
As the Philippines pursues national transformation, HEIs have been mandated by CHED to extend their educational experience to community extension services (CMO No. 52, 2016). This mandate reflects recognition that Philippine higher education institutions must optimally participate in national transformation through knowledge production and transfer, critical to the country’s engagement in the knowledge-based global economy. However, significant gaps persist in scholarly understanding of these initiatives’ impacts and mechanisms. While individual studies document specific program outcomes, the field lacks comprehensive synthesis of beneficiary experiences across diverse contexts and intervention types (Magnaye and Ylagan, 2021). This fragmentation limits both theoretical understanding and practical guidance for program design and improvement.
This study addresses these gaps by conducting a systematic meta-synthesis of qualitative research on Philippine HEI extension programs. It explores how beneficiaries perceive and experience the benefits of these programs through the lens of empowerment and transformation. By synthesizing multiple qualitative perspectives, this research provides a holistic view of how HEIs contribute to sustainable community development while generating grounded theory that explains transformation processes underlying program impacts. The study’s findings offer evidence-based recommendations for enhancing extension program design, implementation, and evaluation to maximize transformative potential while addressing common implementation challenges.
This meta-synthesis is anticipated to make several significant contributions to theory, methodology, and practice in Philippine higher education extension. Theoretically, the study aims to generate the Transformative Community Empowerment Theory (TCET), a grounded framework that explains the mechanisms through which HEI extension programs catalyze sustainable community transformation, addressing the current fragmentation in understanding beneficiary experiences across diverse contexts and intervention types. Unlike existing frameworks that often focus on single dimensions of community development, TCET provides an integrated, multidimensional model specific to the Philippine higher education context. Methodologically, this research demonstrates the utility of meta-synthesis in synthesizing diverse qualitative findings to generate substantive theory applicable across contexts, extending beyond mere aggregation to achieve interpretive understanding that transcends individual studies. Practically, findings will inform evidence-based recommendations for (a) designing extension programs that maximize transformative potential through integrated approaches addressing multiple empowerment dimensions, (b) addressing common implementation challenges identified in the literature through beneficiary-centered strategies, (c) strengthening reciprocal HEI-community partnerships through enhanced understanding of beneficiary needs, experiences, and empowerment processes, and (d) developing comprehensive assessment frameworks that capture multidimensional program impacts beyond traditional activity-based metrics. Ultimately, this research provides HEI administrators, extension coordinators, policymakers, and community development practitioners with empirical foundations for enhancing extension program effectiveness, sustainability, and transformative impact while ensuring alignment with national development priorities and CHED mandates.
Research objectives
This meta-synthesis addresses the gap in systematic understanding of beneficiary experiences by examining qualitative research on Philippine HEI extension programs. The study aims to:
1. Synthesize qualitative findings on beneficiary experiences across different HEI extension programs;
2. identify key patterns and themes in community transformation processes; and
3. develop conceptual understanding of how extension programs contribute to community empowerment.
Theoretical underpinnings
This meta-synthesis is grounded in three complementary theoretical frameworks that inform our understanding of transformative community development. First, empowerment theory (Rappaport, 1987; Zimmerman, 2000) conceptualizes empowerment as a multilevel construct encompassing psychological, organizational, and community dimensions, emphasizing the process through which individuals and communities gain mastery over their circumstances. This framework illuminates how extension programs can foster individual agency while building collective capacity for social change. Second, community development frameworks (Bhattacharyya, 2004) highlight the importance of solidarity and agency in sustainable community transformation, focusing on collective action, participatory processes, and the development of social capital through collaborative engagement. Third, Sen (1999) capability approach emphasizes human development through expanding people’s freedoms and capabilities to achieve valued functioning, shifting focus from resource provision to genuine opportunity expansion. These theoretical perspectives collectively inform our analysis of how HEI extension programs catalyze multidimensional community transformation through integrated approaches that address economic, social, educational, and political dimensions simultaneously. Together, they provide the conceptual foundation for understanding the mechanisms underlying the emergent Transformative Community Empowerment Theory (TCET), which synthesizes these perspectives into a comprehensive framework specific to Philippine HEI extension contexts.
Methodology
Research design
This investigation employed a qualitative meta-synthesis, a systematic approach to reviewing and integrating findings from multiple qualitative studies to achieve interpretive understanding exceeding what individual investigations provide (Walsh and Downe, 2005; Sandelowski and Barroso, 2007). Unlike quantitative meta-analysis, which statistically aggregates effect sizes across experimental studies, qualitative meta-synthesis interpretively integrates themes, concepts, and theoretical insights across qualitative investigations to generate new understanding (Noblit and Hare, 1988; Paterson et al., 2001).
Meta-synthesis is particularly appropriate for this study’s objectives for several reasons. First, it enables systematic identification of patterns across diverse contexts and intervention types, revealing common processes and mechanisms underlying transformative outcomes. Second, it amplifies beneficiary voices by integrating experiential accounts across multiple studies, compensating for individual studies’ limited scope. Third, it facilitates theory generation by identifying conceptual connections and explanatory frameworks implicit across studies but not fully articulated in any single investigation (Lachal et al., 2017; Finfgeld, 2003).
This study specifically follows the meta-ethnographic approach pioneered by Noblit and Hare (1988) and subsequently refined by other scholars (Britten et al., 2002; Campbell et al., 2011). Meta-ethnography involves seven phases: (1) identifying research interest, (2) deciding what is relevant, (3) reading the studies, (4) determining how studies are related, (5) translating studies into one another, (6) synthesizing translations, and (7) expressing the synthesis. These phases provide systematic procedure while maintaining interpretive flexibility appropriate to qualitative inquiry.
Additionally, this research incorporates elements of theory generation consistent with grounded theory principles (Strauss and Corbin, 1998; Charmaz, 2006). Following Kearney (1998, 2001) guidelines for developing mid-range theories from qualitative meta-synthesis, the study moves from descriptive theme identification through interpretive synthesis toward theoretical abstraction, ultimately proposing the Transformative Community Empowerment Theory as explanatory framework grounded in synthesized evidence.
Search strategy
A systematic literature search was conducted following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines (Page et al., 2021). The search targeted qualitative studies examining beneficiary experiences in Philippine HEI community extension programs published between January 2020 and December 2024. This timeframe was selected to capture recent scholarship reflecting current extension practices while ensuring contemporary relevance.
Databases and sources
Three comprehensive academic databases were systematically searched using Publish or Perish software (version 8) for optimized retrieval:
• Google Scholar: Yielded initial results of 200 records
• Crossref: Generated 149 records
• Semantic Scholar: Produced 50 records
• Total initial results: 399 records
Search Terms and Keywords: Boolean search strategies combined the following terms to ensure comprehensive coverage:
• Primary terms: “community extension” OR “extension program” OR “outreach program” OR “community engagement”
• Context terms: AND “Philippines” OR “Filipino” OR “Philippine higher education” OR “Philippine HEI”
• Population terms: AND “beneficiary” OR “participant” OR “community member” OR “recipient”
• Methodology terms: AND “qualitative” OR “phenomenology” OR “case study” OR “narrative” OR “lived experience” OR “thematic analysis”
Search strategies were adapted to each database’s specific syntax and controlled vocabulary while maintaining conceptual consistency. Reference lists of included studies were manually examined to identify additional relevant publications not captured through database searches (backward citation tracking).
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Stringent inclusion and exclusion criteria ensured synthesis quality and coherence (Meline, 2006; Booth et al., 2016). Studies were included if they met all of the following criteria:
Inclusion criteria:
1. Focus: Examined community extension programs implemented by Philippine higher education institutions
2. Perspective: Investigated beneficiary experiences, perceptions, or outcomes
3. Methodology: Employed qualitative research design (e.g., phenomenology, case study, ethnography, grounded theory, narrative inquiry)
4. Language: Published in English
5. Timeframe: Published between January 2020 and December 2024
6. Quality: Achieved satisfactory quality rating using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Qualitative Research Checklist (minimum score of 7/10)
7. Accessibility: Full text available for review
Exclusion criteria:
1. Studies examining extension programs in countries other than Philippines
2. Quantitative studies without substantial qualitative component
3. Studies focused exclusively on program implementation or faculty experiences without examining beneficiary perspectives
4. Conference abstracts, dissertations, and unpublished manuscripts
5. Studies published in languages other than English
6. Studies failing to meet minimum CASP quality threshold
The decision to focus exclusively on Philippine contexts reflected recognition that extension programs operate within particular sociocultural, economic, political, and institutional contexts significantly shaping their design, implementation, and impacts (Hall and Tandon, 2017). While limiting geographical scope reduces some generalizability, it enhances contextual coherence and interpretive depth (Petticrew and Roberts, 2006).
Study selection process
Study selection followed a multi-stage screening process documented using PRISMA 2020 flow diagram (Page et al., 2021):
Stage 1: initial identification and deduplication
• 399 records identified through database searches
• 102 duplicate records removed
• 297 unique records advanced to title/abstract screening
Stage 2: title and abstract screening
• 94 records excluded as clearly irrelevant
• 203 records advanced to full-text retrieval
Stage 3: full-text assessment
• 185 records excluded after intensive review
• 18 studies advanced to quality appraisal
Stage 4: quality appraisal
• 5 studies excluded for methodological weaknesses
• 13 studies met all inclusion criteria and were included in final synthesis
Inter-rater reliability was calculated at each screening stage using Cohen’s kappa coefficient (κ = 0.89 for abstract screening; κ = 0.85 for quality appraisal), indicating strong agreement between independent reviewers. Disagreements were resolved through discussion and, when necessary, consultation with a third reviewer.
Quality assessment
Study quality was assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) qualitative research checklist. The CASP tool evaluates 10 domains including research aims clarity, methodology appropriateness, research design, recruitment strategy, data collection methods, reflexivity, ethical considerations, data analysis rigor, findings clarity, and research value.
Studies were rated as high quality (8–10 criteria met), moderate quality (6–7 criteria met), or low quality (below 6 criteria met). Only studies meeting moderate to high quality standards were included in the synthesis.
Data extraction
Data extraction employed a standardized form capturing:
• Study characteristics (authors, year, location, study design)
• Participant characteristics (demographics, program type, duration)
• Methodology details (data collection methods, analysis approach)
• Key findings related to beneficiary experiences
• Direct quotations supporting main themes
• Authors’ interpretations and conclusions
Synthesis approach
Thematic synthesis was conducted following Thomas and Harden's (2008) three-stage approach:
1. Line-by-line coding of findings from included studies
2. Development of descriptive themes through grouping related codes
3. Generation of analytical themes that provide new interpretive insights.
The synthesis process involved constant comparison across studies, identifying convergent and divergent findings, and developing higher-order themes that captured beneficiary experiences across different program contexts.
Data analysis
Analysis followed Braun and Clarke's (2006, 2013) reflexive thematic analysis through six phases. Phase 1 (Familiarization): All studies were read multiple times, with analytical memos documenting initial patterns and connections. Phase 2 (Initial Coding): Systematic line-by-line coding identified 127 discrete codes related to beneficiary experiences, program impacts, and transformation processes across 13 studies. Phase 3 (Searching for Themes): Initial codes were collated through iterative sorting and clustering to develop candidate themes representing coherent patterns. Phase 4 (Reviewing Themes): Themes were reviewed for internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity. Phase 5 (Defining Themes): Each theme was refined by identifying its essence, scope, and relationships to other themes. Phase 6 (Reporting): Final analysis wove together narrative and data extracts, contextualizing findings within existing literature.
Ethical considerations
Research rigor followed Lincoln and Guba's (1985) trustworthiness criteria. Credibility was established through systematic search procedures, quality appraisal, dual coding, triangulation across studies, and prolonged data engagement. Transferability was enhanced through thick description of contexts and participants. Dependability was maintained through detailed audit trails. Confirmability was pursued through reflexive memoing, peer debriefing, and seeking disconfirming evidence.
As a faculty member at a Philippine HEI involved in extension programming, the researcher brought insider understanding while maintaining reflexive awareness of potential biases. Analytical journaling, peer debriefing with external colleagues, and deliberate examination of contradictory evidence ensured balanced interpretation aligned with amplifying beneficiary voices. This meta-synthesis analyzed publicly available research without direct human subjects participation, honoring original studies’ ethical commitments by accurately representing participants’ experiences, acknowledging limitations, protecting confidentiality, and maintaining integrity focused on community rather than merely institutional interests.
Results and discussion
The systematic search and selection process following PRISMA 2020 guidelines is illustrated in Figure 1. The initial database searches across Google Scholar, Crossref, and Semantic Scholar yielded 399 records. This broad initial retrieval reflected the comprehensive search strategy designed to capture all potentially relevant studies examining community extension programs in Philippine higher education contexts. After removing 102 duplicate records, 297 unique records advanced to title and abstract screening. This initial screening phase eliminated 94 records that clearly did not meet inclusion criteria, typically due to wrong geographical focus, irrelevant topics, or inappropriate methodologies. The remaining 203 records underwent full-text retrieval and intensive assessment.
Figure 1. Search strategy using PRISMA.
During full-text review, 185 records were excluded for various substantive reasons. The largest proportion (78 records) focused on implementer or institutional perspectives rather than beneficiary experiences, highlighting a notable gap in extension literature where program evaluations often privilege provider viewpoints over recipient voices. An additional 43 records employed quantitative methodologies without substantial qualitative components, while 31 examined extension programs outside the Philippines, and 21 addressed non-HEI extension initiatives. Twelve records represented duplicate publications of the same study. This rigorous screening reduced the pool to 18 studies that met all substantive inclusion criteria.
The final quality appraisal stage assessed these 18 studies using the CASP Qualitative Research Checklist. Five studies were excluded due to methodological weaknesses including insufficient description of research methods, unclear analysis procedures, limited researcher reflexivity, or inadequate data supporting stated conclusions. The final sample of 13 studies demonstrated strong methodological quality with CASP scores ranging from 7 to 10 out of 10, ensuring that the meta-synthesis built upon robust empirical foundations. The high inter-rater reliability (Cohen’s kappa = 0.89 for abstract screening, 0.85 for quality appraisal) indicated consistent and reliable application of inclusion criteria and quality standards throughout the selection process.
Power dynamics and inequalities
University-community partnerships operate within contexts of significant power asymmetry. HEIs occupy positions of institutional authority, educational privilege, and resource control that fundamentally shape relationships (Hall and Tandon, 2017). In the Philippine context, these differentials are compounded by class, educational, and urban–rural divides. Extension programs risk perpetuating expert-beneficiary hierarchies where universities define community “needs” and evaluate success according to institutional metrics, potentially marginalizing indigenous knowledge and community-defined priorities (Freire, 1970).
The predominance of positive narratives may reflect not only transformative reality but also power dynamics constraining beneficiary critique, publication bias favoring success stories, and researcher positionality. Programs may unintentionally reinforce existing inequalities through beneficiary selection—when participation requires literacy, daytime availability, or social capital, marginalized populations may be systematically excluded, empowering the relatively advantaged while deepening vulnerability of the most marginalized.
Potential unintended consequences
Dependency creation represents significant risk when programs provide resources without building capacity for autonomous continuation. Beneficiaries may develop reliance on university support rather than self-sufficiency, particularly when programs end abruptly due to funding cycles.
Intra-community conflict may arise from selective benefit distribution. Livelihood programs creating opportunities for some but not others may exacerbate economic stratification. Leadership development may create tensions between traditional authority and newly empowered participants.
Economic disruption occurs when skills training produces graduates for non-existent markets or livelihood initiatives create market saturation. Agricultural programs may introduce commercial systems undermining food security or environmental sustainability.
Cultural disruption merits attention in contexts with indigenous populations. Programs may privilege Western/urban models, potentially devaluing indigenous knowledge and perpetuating colonial epistemologies despite empowerment rhetoric (Hall and Tandon, 2017).
Structural barriers to sustainability
The sustainability theme reflects aspirations rather than documented longitudinal outcomes. Inconsistent funding tied to annual budgets creates instability incompatible with long-term transformation. Faculty turnover disrupts relationship continuity essential for trust-building. University reward structures privileging research over extension create disincentives for sustained engagement. Political shifts affecting local government partnerships introduce instability. CMO No. 52, 2016 establishes extension as required but provides limited resources, potentially incentivizing compliance-driven activities over genuine transformation.
Implications
Acknowledging these challenges positions transformation as contingent and complex, requiring careful attention to power, equity, and sustainability. Effective programs must explicitly address power asymmetries through participatory design, share decision-making authority genuinely, validate diverse knowledge systems, and create accountability ensuring community voice shapes program direction.
This rigorous, transparent selection process addressing over 300 initial records to arrive at 13 high-quality studies demonstrates both the scarcity of beneficiary-focused qualitative research on Philippine HEI extension programs and the methodological stringency applied to ensure synthesis quality. The substantial attrition rate, particularly the exclusion of numerous studies lacking beneficiary perspectives, underscores the need for more community-centered extension research amplifying voices of those programs aim to serve.
Table 1 presents the 13 studies included in the final synthesis, detailing authorship, publication year, extension program types, and initial codes generated from beneficiary experiences. These studies span the period from 2020 to 2024, representing recent scholarship reflecting contemporary extension practices and beneficiary experiences. Geographically, studies covered diverse regions including Luzon (Tarlac, Nueva Vizcaya, Pampanga, Metro Manila), Visayas (Cebu, Ifugao), and Mindanao (Bukidnon), ensuring representation across major Philippine island groups and capturing regional variations in extension approaches and community contexts.
Table 1. Studies highlighting the experiences of the beneficiaries regarding the community extension projects.
Extension program types demonstrated considerable diversity. Economic and livelihood programs featured prominently, including entrepreneurship training for mothers (Ferrater-Gimena et al., 2023), organic agriculture production training (Joy, 2024), livelihood programs for agricultural cooperatives (Maejan et al., 2024), women-focused enterprise development (Rungduin et al., 2022), and technology-based livelihood initiatives (Berte-Gildore, 2024). Educational programs addressed literacy, pedagogical support, and values formation (Binayao et al., 2021; Ferrer, 2022). Health and wellness initiatives included birthday celebration programs for youth (Minyamin et al., 2022) and integrated HEART (Health, Education, Arts, Research, Technology) programs (Montañez et al., 2024). Several studies examined comprehensive, multi-sectoral community development initiatives combining economic, educational, social, and environmental interventions (Quiambao et al., 2020; Adame et al., 2022; Ferrer, 2022).
Beneficiary populations varied across studies, encompassing women (particularly mothers and homemakers), farmers, youth, cooperative members, indigenous communities, and general community residents in underprivileged areas. This diversity of target populations reflected extension’s broad reach and adaptability to different community needs and contexts. Methodologically, phenomenological approaches predominated, with studies employing semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and narrative inquiry to capture lived experiences and meaning-making processes. Sample sizes ranged from small intensive studies with 8–12 participants to larger investigations with 30–45 participants, with most studies employing purposive or criterion sampling to select information-rich cases.
The initial codes generated across studies (rightmost column of Table 1) reveal patterns that subsequently coalesced into the five major themes. Economic-related codes including “increased income,” “improved livelihood,” “economic empowerment,” “financial contribution,” and “business development” appeared frequently. Skill-related codes such as “skills enhancement,” “new abilities,” “acquired knowledge,” “improved technological skills,” and “entrepreneurial skill development” were common. Social codes including “social acceptance and inclusion,” “empowered connections,” “involvement,” and “community impact” emerged consistently. Sustainability indicators like “sustainable,” “continuous and consistent,” and “hope for continuation” appeared across multiple studies. Leadership and empowerment codes including “empowered leadership,” “personal growth,” “confidence-building,” “developed emotional resilience,” and “empowered lives” pervaded beneficiary accounts. This preliminary coding already suggested the interconnected themes that would emerge through systematic thematic synthesis.
The studies also revealed important contextual factors shaping extension outcomes. Several studies highlighted meaningful learning experiences, engaging activities, and beneficiaries’ gratitude and appreciation for programs (Minyamin et al., 2022; Binayao et al., 2021), indicating that process qualities—how programs were delivered and the relationships formed—mattered alongside technical content. References to programs being “highly effective and relevant” (Binayao et al., 2021) and promoting “overall quality of life” (multiple studies) suggested holistic impacts extending beyond narrow sectoral outcomes. The diversity of programs, contexts, and beneficiaries represented in Table 1 provides rich foundation for identifying both common patterns and contextual variations in extension impacts and transformation processes.
Figure 2 presents the VOSviewer network visualization of keyword co-occurrence clustering across included studies, offering complementary perspective on thematic landscape. This bibliometric analysis reveals several interrelated thematic clusters defining the conceptual terrain of Philippine HEI community extension programs. At the network’s center, “community” emerges as the most frequently occurring and best-connected node, visually representing community as the overarching focus and ultimate purpose of extension initiatives. The centrality and connectivity of this node underscore that regardless of specific program type or intervention approach, community wellbeing and development remain the fundamental objective unifying diverse extension efforts.
Figure 2. Network visualization of the keyword co-occurrence clustering view.
Surrounding the central “community” node are distinct yet interconnected clusters capturing various dimensions of extension work. One prominent cluster comprises terms like “higher education,” “learning,” and “university,” emphasizing the scholarly and institutional foundations of extension programs. This cluster highlights HEIs’ roles not merely as service providers but as knowledge-generating institutions engaged in reciprocal learning processes with communities. The co-occurrence of “learning” with both “university” and “community” terms suggests bidirectional knowledge flows characteristic of authentic engagement rather than unidirectional knowledge transfer. This aligns with contemporary scholarship emphasizing co-creation and mutual benefit in university-community partnerships.
Another significant cluster features “story,” “research,” and “high school,” indicating integration of narrative documentation, qualitative research methodologies, and engagement with educational sectors particularly secondary education. The prominence of “story” reflects the narrative and phenomenological approaches predominating in included studies, emphasizing beneficiaries’ lived experiences and meaning-making. The connection to “research” highlights extension’s dual nature as both practical intervention and knowledge-generation activity, with community engagement providing sites for applied research addressing real-world problems. The “high school” connection may reflect extension programs collaborating with secondary schools, targeting youth populations, or addressing educational access and quality issues.
A cluster anchored by “COVID” reveals the adaptive character of HEI extension engagements during the pandemic. This cluster’s presence indicates that several included studies examined extension programs implemented during or in response to COVID-19, with institutions pivoting to address emerging health, economic, and educational needs. The pandemic created both challenges (restrictions on in-person programming) and opportunities (heightened awareness of community vulnerabilities and HEI civic responsibilities) for extension work. Programs adapted through digital platforms, focused on health education and pandemic response, and addressed economic disruptions affecting vulnerable populations.
Additional clusters and connections visible in the network suggest themes related to specific intervention types (livelihood, agriculture, entrepreneurship), program characteristics (sustainable, effective, relevant), and outcome domains (empowerment, development, impact). The overall network structure demonstrates that HEI-led extension operates within complex, interconnected system where institutional, programmatic, contextual, and outcome dimensions mutually influence one another. No element exists in isolation; rather, effective extension requires attending to multiple dimensions simultaneously and understanding their interrelationships.
The visualization also reveals research gaps and opportunities. Some potentially important concepts appear weakly connected or absent, suggesting areas needing greater attention in future scholarship. For instance, terms related to sustainability, monitoring and evaluation, and long-term impact appear less prominent than might be expected given their conceptual importance. Similarly, specific vulnerable populations (indigenous peoples, persons with disabilities) seem underrepresented in keyword networks despite their programmatic importance. These gaps between conceptual significance and empirical emphasis indicate directions for future research strengthening evidence base for inclusive, sustainable extension programming.
Emergent themes
Thematic analysis of the 13 included studies yielded five interconnected themes representing core dimensions of beneficiary experiences in Philippine HEI extension programs: (1) Economic Empowerment and Livelihood Enhancement, (2) Skill Development and Capacity Building, (3) Social Inclusion and Community Engagement, (4) Sustainability and Long-Term Impact, and (5) Leadership and Empowerment. These themes emerged consistently across diverse program types, geographical contexts, and beneficiary populations, suggesting they represent fundamental elements of transformative extension programming. Additionally, an overarching meta-theme emerged: Transformative Community Empowerment through Higher Education Extension Programs. This meta-theme encapsulates how the five core themes interconnect synergistically to facilitate comprehensive transformation extending beyond isolated outcomes to encompass holistic individual and community development.
Theme 1: economic empowerment and livelihood enhancement
One of the greatest benefits of the higher education institution (HEI) driven Extension Programs is economic empowerment. A number of these programs target the improvement of the economic standing of individuals and communities through the provision of entrepreneurship, financial literacy, and other livelihood training. Research suggests that engagement in these programs improves a household’s income, employment levels, and the likelihood of acquiring a decent standard of living (Omblero, 2020; Joy, 2024). These outcomes are consistent with other studies which note the impact of Economic Development Policies on the alleviation of poverty, especially considering that poverty, which is an economic issue, usually acts as a barrier to development in many aspects of life (Ferrater-Gimena et al., 2023).
In addition, one of the most powerful approaches to economic empowerment is entrepreneurship training, through which beneficiaries are taught business management, product development, and marketing strategies (Rungduin et al., 2022). Initiatives involving financial literacy, including budgeting, savings, and investment management, prepare people with critical information to maintain their businesses and financial health (Ferrater-Gimena et al., 2023). When paired with technical skills training, such interventions form a solid basis for self-reliance, cutting back on reliance on external support. Further, access to institutional support, including financing options, cooperative development, and market connections, contributes significantly to improving livelihood sustainability (Rungduin et al., 2022).
Movement from informal, small-scale economic ventures to organized, income-producing activities ensures that beneficiaries are able to maintain financial returns in the long term. Studies indicate that economic independence results in greater spin-off benefits to society, such as enhanced educational opportunities for children and better health outcomes, as households can provide improved living standards (Berte-Gildore, 2024). It is also evident in the study of Adame et al. (2022) that that the members of the community have put up their own business at their own home and doing other livelihood projects even after their extension project. This evident result has manifested that their extension project was sustainable and left an impactful effect to their beneficiaries.
Yet another indispensable element of economic empowerment is access to market, whereby HEIs create avenues between local businesses people and extensive markets. A significant number of extension programs to the community empower its beneficiaries through linking them up to sell products and services so they can benefit many more people (Rungduin et al., 2022). Aside from improved profitability, the effort also improves economic resilience in the sense that persons and communities have reduced vulnerabilities against financial shock. The combined effect of these interventions eventually leads to regional economic development, illustrating how HEI-led initiatives act as drivers of economic growth at micro and macro levels.
The significance of economic empowerment and livelihood improvement in fostering economic stability and increasing community welfare is stressed by Malabanan and Dacara (2024). From their study, it is one of the most significant impacts of economic intervention to be able to meet basic family needs, enroll children in school, and improve communal production. Although household income and job opportunities had a moderate influence, they are still contributing to the betterment of many locals’ lives and making economic growth modest. These findings suggest that though everyone is not yet financially stable, the economic benefits are making a good foundation for enduring growth.
Theme 2: skill development and capacity building
Another major effect of HEI-led extension programs is skill development, which greatly improves the ability of beneficiaries in all areas of life. Skill-building programs tend to address both technical and soft skills so that individuals are not only skilled in specialized professions but also possess interpersonal and problem-solving skills (Berte-Gildore, 2024). The acquisition of these skills allows beneficiaries to access improved employment, start their own enterprises, or use new knowledge in community-based initiatives. Technical skills training is especially useful in agriculture, information technology, and handicrafts.
For instance, agricultural extension services tend to equip farmers with advanced methods in organic farming, pest management, and sustainable resource use (Montañez et al., 2024). These initiatives enhance agricultural productivity and food security, positively affecting rural economies directly. Likewise, digital literacy education empowers individuals with necessary skills to gain employment in the tech industry, where basic computer application and online platform proficiency improves employability (Montañez et al., 2024).
Apart from technical skills, extension programs also focus on soft skill acquisition such as leadership, teamwork, and communication (Terano, 2023). These are very important interpersonal skills that are important for professional development since they facilitate people to work in teams, communicate ideas efficiently, and form professional networks. Research has established that those individuals who undergo this kind of training become more confident and adaptable and hence more marketable in the job market (Quiambao et al., 2020).
Extension programs in the community are very important in enhancing education and skills, especially in areas that lack the same. Malabanan and Dacara (2024) pointed out that most of the residents within the area under their research had achieved at least a high school level of education, while some had made it to college level. Such educational attainment implies being prepared to undergo additional training and development initiatives. In turn, they created extension programs that offered educational assistance and skills development specific to the community’s demands. Such interventions not only strengthened learning but also imparted skill, which allowed individuals to make a greater contribution to local socio-economic endeavors.
Practicality of learnings acquired is another important consideration in skill development programs. As opposed to theoretical education alone, extension programs emphasize experiential and practical learning that enables the beneficiaries to put immediately into practice what they acquired (Quiambao et al., 2020). In this way, one can incorporate new skills into existing ways of life, whether in the workplace, a small enterprise, or a community project. By providing participants with related and applicable knowledge, HEIs make sure that their extension programs have lasting and significant effects on the lives of beneficiaries.
Theme 3: social inclusion and community engagement
HEI-led extension programs also have a critical role in promoting social inclusion by empowering marginalized groups and encouraging community participation. Such programs are usually geared toward reaching vulnerable groups, including women, indigenous peoples, people with disabilities, and low-income individuals (Burkhart-Kriesel et al., 2019; Ferrater-Gimena et al., 2023). Through equal opportunity for participation, such programs ensure that social barriers are dismantled and a sense of belonging within communities is enhanced.
One of the most important features of social inclusion is social confidence, which is acquired by most beneficiaries through participation in extension activities. Studies indicate that involvement in community projects increases self-esteem and the desire to participate in public affairs (Ferrater-Gimena et al., 2023). Rungduin et al. (2022) discovered that projects that assimilate beneficiaries into economic and social systems assist in redefining conventional roles, allowing individuals, especially women, to become productive contributors to household income and community growth.
Another critical element is networking and sharing of resources, where beneficiaries come together and share knowledge, resulting in the creation of support networks between communities. Ferrer (2022) points out that initiatives focusing on peer mentorship and collaborative models strengthen social ties within communities, enabling individuals to learn from commonalities and collective problem-solving. This feeling of belonging creates community resilience, and it becomes simpler for marginalized groups to be absorbed into larger economic and social structures.
In addition, HEI-led initiatives usually incorporate advocacy and awareness-raising activities, ensuring inclusivity at both the local and national levels. Through addressing societal prejudices and championing equal opportunities, such programs are part of the larger mission of social justice. Making extension programs accessible and inclusive enables HEIs to establish settings where all members of society, irrespective of background, can excel and make valuable contributions to society.
Malabanan and Dacara (2024) emphasize the importance of social integration and community involvement in making a healthier and socially aware community as much as the economic benefits. The interventions, according to their work, have enabled residents to sustain a better diet and health, promote wellness, and prevent vices. These social benefits illustrate that economic empowerment is more than mere financial rewards; it is also about establishing a more responsible and engaged population, where individuals are motivated to make smart choices that enhance their overall well-being.
Theme 4: sustainability and long-term impact
Sustainability is a core principle in the design and execution of HEI-led extension programs. Most programs aim to ensure that the benefits extended to beneficiaries extend far beyond the duration of the programs. Sustainability in this case is not just economic but also social, environmental, and institutional resilience (Binayao et al., 2021).
One of the most important strategies for sustainability is the development of community-driven projects, where the beneficiaries own the projects and sustain them on their own. Projects that involve cooperative development, self-help groups, and capacity-building workshops enhance the chances of long-term sustainability (Binayao et al., 2021). When people are empowered with the skills and resources needed to run these projects, they are likely to maintain the positive impacts of the program.
Environmental sustainability is also an essential consideration, especially in agriculture, disaster risk reduction management, and community development initiatives. Most HEI-managed programs adopt green practices, including organic farming, waste reduction, and renewable energy systems, to ensure that economic development does not take place at the expense of environmental degradation (Ferrer, 2022). Such programs foster sustainable use of resources and get their beneficiaries to follow environmentally friendly practices. The other key component of long-term effects is sustained mentorship and support to guarantee that beneficiaries are able to access advice even after the completion of formal programs. Follow-up training and refresher courses, and alumni networks, aid in maintaining the learned skills and knowledge, ensuring improved retention and utilization in practical situations (Ferrer, 2022).
In the study of Malabanan and Dacara (2024), all these social and economic impacts serve to aid sustainability and long-term impacts, particularly in the context of increasing resilience in communities in the long term. The ability to fund household needs, invest in the education of children, and increasingly improve economic status indicates that these benefits will be sustained and further amplified in the future. Overall, the trend shows that long-term resilience and development will ensue as social and financial stability keep progressing, even if a number of economic indicators remain at a medium impact level.
Finally, sustainability ensures that HEI-driven extension programs help build enduring community development instead of giving only short-term relief. Through program designs focusing on long-term involvement and influence, HEIs can establish lasting solutions that capacitate communities well past the life of the intervention.
The sustainability aspirations documented in beneficiary narratives must be distinguished from demonstrated long-term outcomes. Studies synthesized capture perspectives at specific time points, predominantly during or shortly following programs, not extended trajectories. While beneficiaries express strong commitment to maintaining practices and structures, longitudinal evidence documenting whether intentions translate into durable outcomes over 5–10 years remains limited. This reflects broader evaluation challenges where funding cycles and institutional priorities incentivize short-term assessment. Future longitudinal research is essential for validating whether sustainability aspirations translate into demonstrated transformation. Until such evidence accumulates, sustainability should be understood as an aspired pillar requiring validation.
Theme 5: leadership and empowerment
Empowerment becomes a persistent phenomenon in numerous extension programs because these programs try to impart leadership characteristics and autonomy within participants. Those that involve development for leadership purposes (Omblero, 2020) offer ways whereby people are involved in participating fully in their community. Empowered lives (Binayao et al., 2021) mean people building confidence and possessing control of individual and career improvement. Additionally, emotional resilience (Montañez et al., 2024) is established through interventions that enable individuals to recover from adversity, adjust to change, and continue striving to enhance their quality of life.
Education and awareness promotion are at the core of HEI-led extension programs, as they empower individuals and communities with the knowledge required for informed decision-making and sustainable development. These programs fill gaps in formal education, especially among marginalized groups, and offer lifelong learning opportunities. By taking education beyond the classroom, HEIs facilitate capacity-building and social change (Omblero, 2020).
One of the key elements of such programs is functional literacy, which is more than simple reading and writing but also involves critical thinking, digital literacy, health education, and environmental awareness (Binayao et al., 2021). For example, adult education programs assist those who were unable to complete formal education in acquiring necessary skills that enhance their employability and quality of life. Similarly, digital literacy programs instruct individuals how to access internet platforms, information resources, and online commerce, which have been increasingly relevant to our contemporary tech-based society (Montañez et al., 2024).
The other important dimension of health education and awareness programs is health promotion, involving programs regarding nutrition, hygiene, reproductive health, and disease prevention. Extension programs led by HEIs usually incorporate health experts who organize workshops, offer medical consultations, and disseminate health education materials to people in the community (Ferrer, 2022). Evidence shows that these programs enhance health literacy, resulting in enhanced health-seeking behavior and lower rates of disease in populations (Terano, 2023).
Also, extension programs under the leadership of HEI contribute to civic education and advocacy in a significant way by promoting awareness about rights, responsibilities, and societal issues such as gender equity, disaster risk preparedness, and environmental protection. Ferrer (2022) points out that communities which take part in civic education programs have increased involvement in local governance and advocacy work, leading to democratic participation and social responsibility.
One of the greatest strengths of such programs lies in their contextualized and community-oriented nature. In contrast to institutionalized education systems that have uniform curricula, extension programs are specifically designed to address particular community needs. For instance, indigenous education programs combine traditional knowledge and cultural beliefs with contemporary educational techniques, sustaining heritage while enhancing literacy and skills acquisition (Ferrater-Gimena et al., 2023). Finally, education and awareness promotion lead to self-reliant, empowered communities that are capable of solving their own problems and standing up for their rights. By offering open, practical, and relevant learning experiences, HEIs are meeting their mandate as drivers of societal change.
Meta-theme: transformative community empowerment through higher education extension programs
The overarching meta-theme that emerges from the analysis of community extension programs spearheaded by higher education institutions (HEIs) is Transformative and Sustainable Community Development. This meta-theme encapsulates the profound and multidimensional impact of HEI-led initiatives on individuals and communities, highlighting how these programs transcend short-term interventions and foster long-lasting change. The synthesis of themes serve as catalysts for comprehensive and sustained progress.
The meta-theme also points to the way HEI-led extension programs act as drivers of comprehensive and sustainable community development. The combination of economic empowerment, skill acquisition, social inclusion, sustainability, and leadership builds self-reliance, resilience, and active citizenship. Through these initiatives, beneficiaries become active agents of change from passive recipients, leading to individual and societal advancement. By linking academic knowledge to practical applications, HEIs foster a lasting legacy that goes beyond economic returns to include social, educational, and leadership aspects.
Central to this change is Economic Empowerment and Livelihood Enhancement, which gives people economic independence and financial security. Entrepreneurship training, microfinance support, and productivity improvement tactics are programs that not only improve income but also create sustainable livelihood opportunities. These programs, as Joy (2024) and Omblero (2020) mentioned, allow the recipients to break through dependency and be self-reliant, resulting in a spillover benefit to their communities and families. The involvement of HEIs in imparting access to markets and institutional aid further assures that economic empowerment is not a temporary success but a lasting one.
Of equal importance is the Skill Development and Capacity Building, which provides individuals with the required competencies to access an emerging labor market and entrepreneurial environment. With technical skills training in vocation skills, digital knowledge, and business management, extension programs facilitate employability and entrepreneurial opportunities. Outside technical skills, growing soft skills including teamwork, leadership, and communication makes individuals robust and versatile for use in various professional and social environments (Terano, 2023). The real-life application of the skills in realistic situations further underlines their sustainable advantages, whereby beneficiaries become highly resistant to changes in the economy and technology. Social Inclusion and Community Engagement is a critical pillar for sustainable development as it encourages joint development and common growth.
Ferrater-Gimena et al. (2023) note that extension programs boost social self-confidence, especially for disadvantaged groups like women, indigenous groups, and individuals with disabilities. Including these groups in economic and social activities closes the gap between people and builds an inclusive development paradigm. In addition, social cohesion is promoted and resource-sharing is enhanced through networking opportunities provided by extension initiatives, ultimately producing more participatory and dynamic communities.
Another key consideration for long-term transformation is Sustainability and Long-Term Impact. HEI-led extension programs are not only successful in the short run but are successful in bringing about lasting results. Sustainable programs help ensure that individuals continue to enjoy the fruits of their training and participation long after formal intervention stops. Binayao et al. (2021) note that effective programs tend to institutionalize local cooperatives, community businesses, or peer mentorship arrangements to ensure progress is maintained. Furthermore, projects supporting environmental conservation, health education, and literacy introduce a more comprehensive effect, building resilience and self-reliance among their beneficiaries.
Underlying all these aspects is Leadership and Empowerment, which guarantees that people shift from being passive recipients of assistance to being active drivers of change. Leadership training that is integrated in extension programs develops decision-making capacity, problem-solving skills, and emotional strength (Omblero, 2020). Empowered communities turn into community leaders, starting grassroot projects and mobilizing others for collective development initiatives. The development of emotional resilience also enhances people’s ability to withstand adversity and stay focused on their individual and collective development.
Theory generation
This section presents the Transformative Community Empowerment Theory (TCET), a mid-range theory generated inductively from the five emergent themes synthesized across included studies. The theory addresses a critical gap in existing scholarship by providing an integrative framework explaining how HEI extension programs facilitate transformative community empowerment. Unlike grand theories offering broad abstractions difficult to operationalize, or narrow context-specific models with limited transferability, TCET operates at an intermediate level of abstraction, sufficiently grounded in empirical evidence to be actionable while sufficiently general to apply across diverse extension contexts. The theory offers both explanatory power, illuminating mechanisms through which transformation occurs, and predictive utility, suggesting which program elements most strongly influence outcomes.
The Transformative Community Empowerment Theory (TCET) posits that sustained, inclusive, and meaningful community transformation through higher education extension programs requires coherent integration of five interdependent pillars: economic empowerment, skill development, social inclusion, sustainability, and leadership development. When these elements are systematically addressed in mutually reinforcing ways, HEIs function as catalysts for transformative empowerment, enabling communities to experience not only improved wellbeing but also enhanced autonomy, agency, and resilience. Conversely, programs addressing only isolated pillars while neglecting others tend to produce fragmented, unsustainable impacts falling short of genuine transformation.
Theory generated
Transformative community empowerment theory through higher education extension programs
The Transformative Community Empowerment Theory (TCET) posits that sustained, inclusive, and meaningful academic-community partnerships are achieved when higher education extension programs are designed and implemented around five interdependent pillars: economic empowerment, skill development, social inclusion, sustainability, and community leadership. When these elements are coherently addressed, higher education institutions become agents of transformative empowerment, enabling communities to experience not only improved well-being but also long-term autonomy and resilience (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Visual representation of the theory generated.
Core propositions
Proposition 1: Transformation requires multidimensional intervention. Single-sector approaches fail. Genuine transformation needs comprehensive strategies simultaneously addressing economic, educational, and social dimensions.
Proposition 2: The five pillars operate synergistically, not additively. Combined effects exceed individual impacts. Programs must design for synergies and mutual reinforcement.
Proposition 3: Agency and ownership are prerequisites for sustainability. Sustainable transformation requires shifting beneficiaries from passive recipients to active agents through participatory approaches.
Proposition 4: Transformation operates at multiple levels simultaneously. Changes at individual, household, organizational, and community levels reinforce each other. Programs must target all levels.
Proposition 5: Context matters; standardization undermines effectiveness. Implementation strategies must adapt to local circumstances, cultural values, and institutional capacities.
Proposition 6: Partnership quality determines program effectiveness. Transformational partnerships with mutual respect, shared decision-making, and sustained commitment enable deeper change than transactional relationships.
The five pillars
Pillar 1: Economic Empowerment and Livelihood Enhancement enables beneficiaries to meet basic needs through entrepreneurship, financial literacy, market access, and income diversification.
Pillar 2: Skill Development and Capacity Building equips beneficiaries with technical and soft skills, extending to organizational strengthening and institutional development.
Pillar 3: Social Inclusion and Community Engagement addresses exclusionary barriers and creates spaces for dialogue, decision-making, and collective action.
Pillar 4: Sustainability and Long-Term Impact ensures program benefits persist through economic, social, environmental, and institutional sustainability mechanisms.
Pillar 5: Leadership Development and Empowerment positions beneficiaries as change agents operating at psychological, organizational, and community levels.
Positioning TCET within community development theories
TCET and asset-based community development (ABCD)
Kretzmann and McKnight’s (1993) ABCD shares TCET’s emphasis on community strengths and local capacity building. Both position communities as possessing inherent assets requiring mobilization rather than external provision.
TCET diverges in critical ways: First, while ABCD focuses on community-internal assets, TCET explicitly integrates HEIs as active partners bringing complementary resources while avoiding deficit narratives through emphasis on reciprocal benefit. Second, TCET’s five-pillar structure provides more granular guidance than ABCD’s broad asset-mapping. Third, TCET explicitly integrates sustainability and environmental dimensions reflecting contemporary concerns often absent from earlier frameworks.
TCET and Arnstein’s ladder of citizen participation
Arnstein’s (1969) Ladder conceptualizes power-sharing across rungs from manipulation to citizen control. TCET’s transformation from passive recipients to active change agents resonates with movement toward authentic participation.
Yet TCET extends beyond participation levels to encompass multidimensional empowerment. A community might achieve high participation in governance while experiencing limited economic empowerment—dimensions TCET explicitly addresses. Furthermore, TCET emphasizes interdependence among pillars rather than linear progression. Economic empowerment may enable social inclusion; skill development may facilitate leadership emergence—a systems perspective contrasting with Arnstein’s hierarchical metaphor.
TCET and Freirean transformative learning
Freire’s (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed emphasizes conscientization enabling learners to challenge oppressive structures. TCET’s emphasis on agency development reflects Freirean liberation principles.
However, TCET operationalizes transformative learning through specific pillars applicable to community extension rather than focusing primarily on individual pedagogy. TCET integrates education with economic opportunity, social networks, environmental stewardship, and leadership infrastructure—recognizing transformation requires material foundations alongside consciousness-raising. Additionally, TCET emerges from empirical synthesis of Philippine beneficiary experiences rather than philosophical theory, providing context-specific, evidence-based guidance.
TCET’S unique value proposition
TCET’s distinctive contributions include: (1) context-specificity to Philippine HEI extension addressing particular institutional mandates and sociocultural contexts, (2) multidimensional integration synthesizing economic, educational, social, environmental, and leadership dimensions, (3) explicit HEI partnership positioning, (4) actionable operationalization through specific pillars, (5) empirical grounding in beneficiary experiences, (6) sustainability integration, and (7) transformation trajectory articulation from recipients to change agents.
Future directions for validating the TCET
TCET emerges from qualitative meta-synthesis constituting grounded theory requiring systematic validation. We propose a comprehensive research agenda:
Quantitative instrument development
Develop instruments measuring each TCET pillar with demonstrated reliability and validity, enabling systematic assessment, comparative evaluation, and longitudinal tracking. Psychometric validation through confirmatory factor analysis would establish measurement quality while developing both self-report and observational tools for triangulation.
Longitudinal studies
Five to ten-year follow-up of beneficiaries would document which empowerment dimensions prove durable versus transient, factors predicting sustained impacts, and long-term economic outcomes, leadership persistence, and social capital durability. This addresses critical gaps where current synthesis reflects aspirations rather than validated outcomes.
Comparative effectiveness studies
Quasi-experimental designs contrasting TCET-designed integrated programs versus traditional interventions would test whether programs explicitly addressing all five pillars produce superior outcomes. Mixed-methods approaches would illuminate both effectiveness and underlying mechanisms.
Cross-context validation
Testing TCET applicability across diverse Philippine contexts (rural/urban, regional differences, indigenous/mainstream communities) and other developing countries would identify universal versus context-dependent components, enabling framework refinement maintaining core principles while allowing contextual adaptation.
Participatory validation
Member checking with beneficiaries, practitioner validation with extension coordinators, and expert review from diverse theoretical orientations—including critics of university-community partnerships—would provide essential qualitative validation. Critical examination of how TCET-designed programs navigate power asymmetries is particularly important.
Policy implementation research
Case studies of HEIs adopting TCET as guiding framework and accreditation processes incorporating TCET-based criteria would generate practical knowledge about facilitators, barriers, resource requirements, and implementation fidelity across different institutional contexts.
Integration of critical perspectives
Validation must explicitly examine programs that failed, beneficiaries who dropped out, intra-community conflicts generated, dependency creation versus empowerment, and whose voices are privileged in TCET-designed programs.
Limitations
TCET synthesizes empowerment theory, community development, and capability approach into a coherent HEI extension model. It articulates causal mechanisms linking inputs to outcomes, identifies synergies among empowerment dimensions, and specifies contextual factors moderating applicability.
As theory derived from Philippine studies, generalizability requires verification in other contexts. It identifies key pillars but not precise causal pathways, effect sizes, or optimal sequencing. It emphasizes positive outcomes over unintended consequences or failures. Future research needs empirical testing, cross-national comparison, and longitudinal investigation.
Several critical limitations warrant acknowledgment. First, studies capture beneficiary perspectives at specific time points rather than long-term trajectories; sustainability conclusions reflect intentions not validated outcomes. Second, publication bias likely favors positive outcomes over failed programs or negative consequences. Third, counter-narratives from those who declined participation, dropped out, or experienced negative outcomes remain largely absent, limiting understanding of for whom and when programs prove beneficial. Fourth, most studies were conducted by implementers or affiliated researchers, raising concerns about positionality favoring affirming interpretations over critical examination of power dynamics. Finally, meta-synthesis risks decontextualizing findings from specific cultural, geographic, and institutional contexts profoundly shaping outcomes. TCET thus requires validation across diverse contexts to determine generalizability.
Conclusion and recommendations
The results of this meta-synthesis underscore the transformative impact of higher education institutions (HEIs) in community development through extension programs. Through the examination of beneficiaries’ experiences, this study established key themes that highlight the important roles of HEIs. The synthesis showed that not only are these programs responsive to urgent needs of the community but they also have long-term effects by empowering people with the appropriate knowledge, skills, and resources to become self-sustaining and involved in their communities. Hence, based on these outcomes, HEIs can further enhance their community extension programs by embracing a more holistic and sustainable strategy. Institutions can further focus on participatory partnerships with local stakeholders in order to have programs that really meet the actual needs of the community. On top of this, integrating technology and innovative learning approaches can facilitate the effectiveness and coverage of the programs. Finally, HEIs can also introduce systematic monitoring and evaluation systems for measuring the long-term effects of their initiatives as well as maintaining continuous improvement.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.
Author contributions
RA: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Project administration.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Keywords: community extension, higher education, meta-synthesis, systematic review, theory generation
Citation: Angco RJN (2026) Bridging academia and communities through higher education extension programs in the Philippines: a meta-synthesis toward theory generation. Front. Educ. 11:1764682. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2026.1764682
Edited by:
Rany Sam, National University of Battambang, CambodiaReviewed by:
Mardy Serey, Svay Rieng University, CambodiaYeni Rosilawati, Muhammadiyah University of Yogyakarta, Indonesia
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*Correspondence: Robert Jay N. Angco, cm9iZXJ0amF5LmFuZ2NvQGN0dS5lZHUucGg=
†ORCID: Robert Jay N. Angco, orcid.org/0000-0001-5321-2371