SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article
Front. Environ. Sci.
Sec. Water and Wastewater Management
Comparative Systematic Review of Low-Cost Adsorbents for Fluoride and Heavy Metal Removal in Rural Water Supplies in South Africa (1 January 2000 – 30 June 2025)
Provisionally accepted
- 1University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
- 2Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa
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Access to safe drinking water remains an urgent challenge in rural developing countries, including South Africa, where naturally occurring fluoride and anthropogenic heavy metals (Pb2+, Cd2+, As, Cr6+) pose a threat to public health. This systematic review, conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines (PROSPERO: CRD420251084775), analysed 29 studies published between 2008 and 2025 that investigated the use of low-cost adsorbents, such as biochar, activated carbon, bone char, clay minerals, and agricultural wastes to improve access to clean water. The analysis (n = 29) showed removal efficiencies of over 90% for Pb2+, Cd2⁺, and Cr6⁺ in most studies, with adsorption capacities ranging from 10 to >200 mg/g. Biochar and activated carbon consistently showed higher performance and better regeneration potential, while agricultural by-products and clays offered affordability and accessibility. Approximately 40% of the included studies validated these materials at pilot or field scale, and showed slightly lower, but still effective removal compared to laboratory conditions. Additionally, these studies show that low-cost adsorbents are practical and sustainable solutions for rural water contamination by heavy metals in South Africa, though there are still gaps in long-term regeneration, field-scale durability, and treatment of emerging contaminants. This review emphasises the importance of context-specific, low-cost technologies for improving water security and public health in resource-limited areas. Conclusively, the study provided evidence to inform policies promoting the adoption of low-cost, locally sourced adsorbents as sustainable technologies for improving rural water supply management and public health in South Africa.
Keywords: Low-cost adsorbents, fluoride and heavy metals removal, Water treatment, South Africa, Rural water supply (RWS)
Received: 11 Oct 2025; Accepted: 17 Nov 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Fagbohun, Okechukwu, Adelusi and Okonkwo. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Viola O. Okechukwu, viola.okechukwu15@gmail.com
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