ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Public Health
Sec. Environmental Health and Exposome
This article is part of the Research TopicExploring the Intersection of Land Use and Public HealthView all 3 articles
Evaluating TOD Performance through Node-Place Model: Evidence from Bus Stop Areas in Windhoek, Namibia
Provisionally accepted
- Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China
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Background: Transit-oriented development (TOD) is now regarded as an important measure to improve sustainable urban mobility and land-use efficiency in rapidly growing cities. Despite the vast research on TOD implementation in the Asian and American context, little has been done regarding the application of TOD in African cities, especially those that are not equipped with metropolitan rails, such as Windhoek, Namibia. Methods: This study evaluates 135 bus stops in Windhoek based on a node-place (NP) model. Within a 400-meter walking catchment, three node indicators and seven place indicators are applied to define transport accessibility and land-use intensity in each instance each stop. The spatial analysis is carried out in GIS environment to combine NP indicators. The data are evaluated in three weighting schemes including Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), entropy weighting, and equal weighting to measure robustness and to determine the effects of weighting preferences on the NP index. Results: Most of the stops (80 out of 135) have place values that are higher than node values indicating common areas where the intensity of land-use is higher than the transport accessibility. There are clear north south differences in the values of Node-Place along the B1 road, with the city center being more node-place synergistic and the suburban regions being dependent in nature. These spatial differences are due to stage-specific planning paths. The sensitivity analysis demonstrates that AHP and equal weighting have high concordance, and entropy weighting has significant changes, with industrial land having a greater weight, and it would be recommended to have context-dependent calibration of indicators. The absence of "stress" areas presents a unique opportunity for proactive planning before congestion becomes entrenched. The discussion also indicates the possible health advantages of a better TOD such as more walking and transit, lower vehicle emissions, and easier access to health services, while acknowledging the low-income communities in the peripheral areas may face critical equity issues. Conclusion: The findings underscore the role of context-specific TOD planning in African developing cities, where typical stress conditions might not yet exist but systemic dependence issues require proactive intervention to prevent future imbalances.
Keywords: bus-based TOD3, equity4, healthy city 5, Namibia 6, node-place mode2, transit-oriented development (TOD) 1
Received: 02 Sep 2025; Accepted: 30 Nov 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Cui, Yang and Mwetuhafifa. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Nana Cui
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