Skin wound healing part II: from traditional cataplasm to advanced wound dressings

The first part of this review summarizes fundamental wound-healing biology and advances a novel, integrative roadmap for developing next-generation wound technologies that weave together ancestral knowledges and modern biomaterials science, analyzing recent evidence and translational opportunities in that direction. It also examines clinical trials, patents, regulatory issues, and epistemological challenges around medicinal plants. (DOI). This second part delves into historical poultices and the plants used to make them, summarizing reported medicinal effects, key phytochemicals, and mechanisms for topical wound and inflammation modulation. It follows the translation of these materia medica into modern technologies identifying translational routes and technical gaps. In addition, the review examines the validation of medicinal products integrated into modern technological platforms, encompassing in vitro assays, in vivo experiments, and clinical trials. The paper argues that ancestral health paradigms, rooted in ecological knowledge and community practice, can complement biomedical frameworks across research, product design, and clinical use. It prioritizes respectful, participatory approaches that conserve biodiversity and protect the intellectual and cultural rights of source communities while centering patient autonomy and psychosocial support. Finally, it calls out critical evidence gaps and proposes methodological, ethical, and regulatory standards for rigorous ethnopharmacological validation and responsible integration of traditional poultice knowledge into contemporary wound-care innovation.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT |

1 Introduction

Plant-based medicine is foundational to the history of wound care, with roots extending deep into practically every ancient civilization (Das et al., 2017). Traditional remedies relied on the direct topical application of crushed plant matter, oils, or pastes—cataplasms or poultices—often wrapped in fabrics to deliver the healing substances to wounds. The logic was empirical but effective: plant tissues could deliver bioactive compounds, maintain moisture, and provide a protective barrier. The processes behind these remedies, such as extracting leaves or roots, macerating them, applying mild heat, and trapping the medicine against skin, are surprisingly well-aligned with the optimal wound environment according to modern clinical science. Key medicinal systems—Ayurveda, Unani, Chinese medicine, and ethnomedicine from Latin America to Africa—have contributed an encyclopedic diversity of plant species and preparation methods for promoting healing, combating infection, and reducing inflammation.

Despite the simplicity of their preparation—fresh or dried plant material mashed, heated, and applied in cloth wrappings—cataplasms also presented limitations: poor dosing control, risk of secondary infection, short duration of action once applied, and variable effectiveness depending on local conditions. Nevertheless, the success of these ancient applications paved the way for the integration of plants into more controlled and sophisticated biomaterial matrices.

The last decades have seen an increase in wound healing research, by harnessing pharmaceutical-grade plant extracts and integrating them within biopolymer systems (Patel et al., 2021). This harmonizes the principles of traditional practice with the precision, safety, and efficacy of modern materials science. Natural polymers—chitosan, alginate, cellulose, hyaluronic acid, gelatin, pectin, starch, and silk fibroin—are increasingly favored due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and functional resemblance to the human extracellular matrix.

Modern plant-based wound healers are now available as films, hydrogels, lyophilized foams, flexible matrices, nanofiber mats, and even 3D-printed smart dressings. This shift reflects an understanding that an optimal wound environment must balance microbial barrier function, exudate management, moisture retention, controlled drug delivery, and facilitation of tissue regeneration—properties difficult, if not impossible, to achieve using plant matter alone.

Such innovations also respond to rising clinical challenges: chronic wounds linked to diabetes, venous and pressure ulcers, antibiotic-resistant infections, and the global healthcare cost burden. In these contexts, herbal–biopolymer formulations do much more than protect; they actively deliver molecules with antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and pro-angiogenic effects at the site and time they are needed most.

However, the knowledge of ancestral medicines goes further than the use of herbal medicine and its properties. One of the defining epistemological contributions of ancestral medicine lies in its holistic understanding of health and disease. Unlike the biomedical model’s focus on isolated pathology, ancestral medical systems conceptualize wounds and healing as the result of imbalances—spiritual, emotional, ecological, and social—as well as physical disruptions.

Illness is believed to arise not only from physical injury or infection but from the breakdown of harmony at multiple levels of existence—be it due to social discord, environmental transgressions, or spiritual disturbance. This multi-layered conceptualization of wounds mandates therapeutic approaches addressing all spheres, setting the stage for integrative models of care.

Ancestral knowledge treats health as ecological and relational, emphasizing balance between body, environment, and community; modern medicine emphasizes mechanism, standardized safety, and measurable outcomes. Combining these epistemologies yields a dual lens: ancestral practice guides what to test and how to apply it in context, and modern science validates, standardizes, and optimizes those practices for wider, safer and more sustainable use.

In the first part of this review we have traced how these materia medica have been incorporated into contemporary technologies—formulation strategies, extraction and standardization methods, biomaterial carriers, and nanotechnological delivery systems—highlighting ethical and regulatory considerations necessary to responsibly integrate traditional poultice knowledge into modern wound-care innovations. In this second part of the review we analyze historical poultices and the plant species traditionally used to prepare them, detailing their reported medicinal properties, phytochemical constituents, and the documented mechanisms underlying topical wound and inflammation modulation. We identify critical evidence gaps, propose methodological standards for rigorous ethnopharmacological validation and clinical evaluation for the incorporation of medicinal plants into advanced wound dressings by tissue engineering methodology. We examine how ancestral paradigms of health and disease, grounded in ecological knowledge and community practice, can complement biomedical frameworks to foster more holistic therapeutic strategies, from the design of research and product development to clinical implementation. Emphasis is placed on respectful, participatory approaches that conserve biodiversity, honor intellectual and cultural rights of source communities, and center patient autonomy and psychosocial-emotional accompaniment throughout recovery.

2 Search methodology and study design

A systematic search was conducted in Web of Science and Scopus to identify studies on herbal extracts and tissue engineering approaches for cutaneous wound healing. The search covered publications from 2000 through December 2023. Combined keywords included: “skin wound healing”, “skin regeneration”, “herbal extract”, “phytomedicine”, “traditional medicine”, “ethnopharmacology”, “ancestral medicine knowledge”, “traditional poultice”, “cataplasm”, “tissue engineering”, “biopolymers”, “clinical trial”, “biocultural heritage” and “herbal regulatory standards” using Boolean operators (AND/OR). Retrieved records were filtered by language (English and Spanish) and by study type (reviews, preclinical studies, and clinical trials). Duplicates were removed and remaining records screened by title and abstract for relevance, followed by full-text assessment.

3 Traditional medicine

Traditional medicine has been transmitted across generations in various cultures long before the advent of modern medical practices. These culturally based medical practices have ancient origins and vary widely according to the social and cultural heritage of different nations. The establishment of a medical system has always been essential in human societies to address the challenges of sustaining health and managing diseases (Patel et al., 2021). Traditional medicinal plant preparations have been particularly successful in wound management, offering multifactorial advantages such as disinfection, debridement, and creating an optimal environment for natural healing processes (Das et al., 2017).

Ancestral healing approaches integrate multimodal remedies—including botanicals, bee products, clays, and animal-derived preparations—that deliver antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, haemostatic, and regenerative effects, while simultaneously embedding care within ritual and relational frameworks that mobilize family and community support, shape patient expectations, and mitigate psychosocial barriers to recovery; these practices are further contextualized through seasonal, ecological, and cultural calendars that guide the timing, harvesting, preparation, and application of medicinal resources, ensuring therapeutic relevance and environmental attunement.

3.1 Therapeutic practices in ancestral wound healing

Across regions, plant-derived remedies remain at the heart of ancestral approaches to wounds. Ethnobotanical studies highlight the extraordinary biodiversity harnessed in traditional medicine—the Amazon alone boasts hundreds of documented therapeutic species for wound care, such as copaiba oil (anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial), Piper aduncum (antiseptic), and Sangre de drago (Croton lechleri, natural latex for staunching bleeding and stimulating regeneration) (De Sousa et al., 2021; Salazar-Gómez and Alonso-Castro, 2022).

African traditional medicine features a vibrant pharmacopoeia—Aloe ferox, Aspilia africana, Kigelia africana, and numerous others—whose antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory phytochemicals have been shown to enhance wound contraction, epithelialization, and tissue regeneration in both in vitro and clinical studies (Molefe et al., 2025; Koungou et al., 2023).

Ayurveda employs a sophisticated system of herbal pastes, medicated oils (e.g., Jatyadi Ghrita), decoctions, and fumigations to cleanse, debride, and actively promote wound healing (conversion from Dushta Vrana to Shuddha Vrana) (Patel et al., 2021). Unique to Ayurveda, these interventions are recommended alongside internal purification, dietary guidelines, and spiritual practices.

Indigenous North American wound care features a pharmacopoeia including calendula, yarrow, sage, and cedar, as well as honey, tree resins, and other natural remedies (Adekson, 2017). Symbolic acts—such as smudging, sweat lodges, and drumming—accompany these medicines to create an environment conducive to healing.

Recent ethnobotanical surveys in regions like the Brazilian Amazon, Cameroon, and Pakistan continue to reveal both the diversity and sophistication of local wound-healing pharmacopeias. Many of these plants are now entering the pipeline of pharmacological trials, highlighting the empirical roots and untapped potential of such indigenous knowledge (Barsh, 1997).

3.2 Plant-based remedies and pharmacopoeias

Plants on the planet earth are the largest healers in the world (Suja et al., 2020). In recent years, there has been an increasing number of research articles exploring the use of herbal natural products as beneficial agents in wound healing. The primary advantages of these botanical remedies include their low cost and high availability. Furthermore, there is also the advantage that, in some cases, they may have very few side effects (Malone and Tsai, 2018; Sofowora et al., 2013), which encourages further research into this type of medicine.

Plants contain a wide array of bioactive phytochemicals, predominantly from the families of alkaloids, carotenoids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds (Vitale et al., 2022). These substances are known to exert numerous healing effects, either directly or indirectly (Agarwal et al., 2021). Phytocompounds can influence different stages of the wound healing process through various mechanisms. These mechanisms include anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activity, as well as stimulation of collagen synthesis, promotion of cell proliferation, and angiogenic effects (Vitale et al., 2022). Figure 1 shows the pharmacological wound healing bioactivities of different plants (Albahri et al., 2023). For example, it has been reported that the effect of the aqueous extract of Ocimum sanctum leaves on burn wounds on rabbits, has effects anti-inflammatory, immune modulatory, and free radical scavenging activity of the extract (Gupta, 2020).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Pharmacological wound healing activities of some remarkable medicinal plants. Image modified from the therapeutic wound healing bioactivities of various medicinal plants (Albahri et al., 2023). This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Interestingly, the use of combinations of medicinal plants in wound treatment show a significant reduction in wound closure time and improvement in the quality of the healed wound compared to individual plant use (Tanimu et al., 2022). The application of herbal combinations shows promising potential in wound treatment and management due to the presence of diverse, multitargeted phytoconstituents (Aslam et al., 2016). Unlike synthetic drugs, the topical application of polyherbal formulations for wound treatment has generally not shown any side effects, such as skin irritation, toxicity, erythema, eschar, or edema during acute dermal toxicity and skin irritation tests in animal burn wound models. Topical wound healing drugs can easily enter the systemic circulation due to the loss of the epidermal layer in full-thickness wounds, causing various dysfunctions. However, studies on the adverse effects of herbal wound healing products on systemic functions after skin penetration are scarce. Carefully selected medicinal plants and their combinations have shown potential for positive interactions among phytoconstituents, such as synergism, reinforcement, potentiation, complementation, and mutual enhancement or assistance. The process of selecting plants for combination must be meticulously carried out to avoid incompatibility and counteraction among phytoconstituents, which could lead to undesirable outcomes (Tanimu et al., 2022).

3.3 Medicinal activities of the plants

The medicinal activities of the plants include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hemostatic antimicrobial, anti-scar, angiogenic and synergistic activities.

3.3.1 Antioxidant activity

Substances such as shikonin, alkanin, lawsone, emodin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and ellagic acid, along with certain herbal extracts, act as potent antioxidants by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), inhibiting lipid peroxidation, and enhancing the activities of intracellular antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px). Phytocompounds exert potent antioxidant effects by interacting directly or indirectly with free radicals (Yazarlu et al., 2021).

3.3.2 Antiinflamatory activity

The anti-inflammatory properties of plant extracts are mediated through the inhibition of cytokine and chemokine production, as well as the suppression of the nitric oxide pathway. Herbal extracts and natural products’ immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects hasten the wound healing process. For instance, α-mangostin exhibits anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Both curcumin and α-mangostin prevent the translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Additionally, curcumin acts as a scavenger of ROS during the inflammation phase, enhances granulation tissue formation and collagen deposition in the proliferation phase, and elevates TGF-β levels in the remodeling phase (Akbik et al., 2014).

Juice of the fresh ginger rhizome is commonly applied to fresh wounds, bruises, and leech bite. Curcuma longa, Zingiberaceae family possesses antibacterial, antifungal, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory activities; curcuminoids decrease prostaglandin formation, inhibit leukotriene biosynthesis via the lipoxygenase pathway, these results in early synthesis of collagen fibers by mimicking fibroblastic activity (Maver et al., 2015).

It is important to note that these antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties are not confined to specific phytocompounds; rather, each plant has many active compounds that work together to restore balance after an injury. Moreover a synergistic effect is often observed in herb-herb combinations, the interactions among the multiple phytoconstituents in poly herbal formulations result in transformations of some active compounds, leading to the formation of new pharmacologically active compounds that are not present in the individual plants (Tanimu et al., 2022).

3.3.3 Hemostatic activity

There are limited studies on polyherbal formulation (PHFs) that are used for managing blood flow when injury occurs. Urtica dioica leaf extracts were evaluated for their antibacterial and antioxidant effects as well as their flavonoid and polyphenol content (Zouari Bouassida et al., 2017).

Ankaferd blood stopper (ABS) is a commercial product composed by a combination of herbal medicines Thymus vulgaris (dried grass extract), G. glabra (dried leaf extract), Vitis vinifera (dried leaf extract), Alpinia officinarum (dried leaf extract) and Urtica dioica (dried root extract). This is a traditional formulation in Turkish ancestral medicine. The in vivo studies and clinical experience showed ABS provides tissue oxygenation and facilitates physiological hemostatic process without affecting individual’s coagulation factors. This makes it unique and more advantageous over other plant extracts with hemostatic property when used separately (Akalin et al., 2014; Baykul et al., 2010).

3.3.4 Antimicrobial activity

Bacterial pathogens commonly associated with wound infections are predominantly multidrug-resistant strains of Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus pyogenes, as well as Gram-negative bacteria like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Chromobacterium violaceum, and Serratia marcescens. The presence of multidrug-resistant bacteria significantly impedes wound healing, making them a leading cause of high mortality and morbidity in patients with chronic wound infections. Active principles in herbs can disrupt bacterial cell walls and membranes, modify critical genetic components, induce mutations leading to cell damage, and ultimately cause bacterial cell death.

Echinacea (Asteraceae) has been used as a medicinal plant in American folk medicine for a long time. Various studies have shown its antimicrobial activity against viruses such as Vesicular Stomatitis virus and Encephalomyocarditis virus, bacteria including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and P. aeruginosa, and fungi like Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Candida shehata, Candida kefyr, Candida steatulytica, and Candida tropicalis. Echinacea extracts also inhibit cyclooxygenase-I, cyclooxygenase-II, and 5-lipoxygenase, contributing to their anti-inflammatory properties. These activities enhance wound healing (Maver et al., 2015).

Herbs like henna, pomegranate, and myrrh have been extensively used in traditional medicine for their antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties. Elzayat et al. (2018) performed an in-depth investigation of the synergistic wound healing activities of the aforementioned herb extract formulation blend (Elzayat et al., 2018). The study demonstrated strong antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as C. albicans, which are involved in wound healing. It also observed enhanced wound contraction, re-epithelialization, and granulation tissue formation compared to the control in in vivo study. The accelerated wound contraction by the blend formulation may be attributed to the stimulation of cytokines, specifically an inflammatory alpha-chemokine by flavonoids, terpenes, and gallic acid (Moyer et al., 2002). Phytochemical constituents of the herbal extract henna contain monoterpenoids, which possess anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties (Chmit et al., 2014). Pomegranate includes polyphenols such as ellagic tannins, ellagic acid, and gallic acid, known for their antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties (Nayak et al., 2013). Myrrh contains furanosesquiterpenes, beta-sitosterol, and alcohol-soluble resins that provide potent antiseptic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory benefits (Walsh et al., 2010).

3.3.5 Anti-scar activity

Scars are formed due to excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) during wound healing. Various strategies are required to prevent scar formation and enhance the quality of healed wounds. However, currently, there are no effective treatments for achieving scarless wound healing in adults (Ye et al., 2015).

In vitro studies suggest that onion extract may possess anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative properties on fibroblasts and mast cells, as well as enhance the expression of MMP-1 (Unable to find information for 17340345, n.d.). Both quercetin and onion extract have been shown to upregulate MMP-1 expression in vitro and in vivo. Since MMP-1 is involved in ECM remodeling, quercetin and onion extract may contribute to anti-fibrotic processes (Chanprapaph et al., 2012).

Beuth and colleagues conducted a comparison study between hypertrophic scars treated with Contractubex® (containing cepae extract, heparin, and allantoin) for 28 days (treatment group) and those treated with a single intra-lesional corticosteroid application (control group). The results showed that Contractubex® significantly reduced the time required for scar normalization (in terms of erythema, pruritus, and consistency) compared to the corticosteroid group. Additionally, Contractubex® was associated with fewer adverse events than the corticosteroid application (Beuth et al., 2006). Some studies confirm that the introduction of PHF wound care strategies appears promising in this regard (Kavitha et al., 2013; Lau et al., 2012).

3.3.6 Angiogenic activity

Angiogenesis is a crucial factor to determine the quality and speed of reparative or regenerative processes in tissue post-injury. One of the most effective strategies to enhance tissue angiogenesis is the administration of pro-angiogenic growth factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and epidermal growth factor (EGF). Despite extensive exploration, the clinical application of this strategy is limited due to the labile nature and short half-life of these growth factors, uncontrolled pharmacokinetics, the risk of delivering supra-optimal doses, and high production costs. In this context, the use of bioactive plant extracts with pro-angiogenic properties presents a promising alternative. Various plant extracts have been reported to possess these properties. The root of Panax notoginseng (San Qi in Chinese) is a traditional herbal medicine in Asia, used to treat blood stasis and promote circulation. It is also proposed for treating cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory conditions, and traumatic injuries. The basic active ingredients in P. notoginseng are saponins; more than 60 saponins have been identified in this plant, of which ginsenoside Rg1, ginsenoside Rb1, and notoginsenoside R1 are the major P. notoginseng saponins. These compounds have demonstrated to possess angiogenic effects in vitro and in vivo at multiple sites of action (Li et al., 2022).

3.3.7 Synergistic activity

The complex nature of wound healing processes—including hemostasis, promotion of local inflammation, removal of cellular debris and pathogens, proliferation and migration of fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and endothelial cells, ECM secretion, angiogenesis, and tissue remodeling—necessitates a multitargeted (polyvalent) approach. Herbal medicine exerts positive influences by acting synergistically and simultaneously on various wound repair processes (Tanimu et al., 2022). Certain herbal medicines appear to operate through multiple mechanisms and exhibit healing properties throughout different stages of the wound healing process. Various in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that numerous herbal extracts possess significant antioxidant properties, which promote wound healing and protect tissues from oxidative damage. Compounds like flavonoids, anthraquinones, and naphthoquinones are known for their strong antioxidant activities.

Herbal medicines modulate several signaling pathways that are crucial for effective wound healing. These pathways include transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ), focal adhesion kinases (FAK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases (PI3K), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), Smad2, and Smad7, all of which regulate different molecular processes leading to appropriate and scarless wound healing (Yazarlu et al., 2021).

3.4 Semisolid preparations: natural dressings, ointments and cataplasm

As was described in the first part of this review, ancestral wound healing includes treating wounds with plant-infused washes and poultices made from oils and herbs that combine physical, biochemical, and symbolic care. Traditional poultices deliberately assemble multiple botanicals whose active compounds work synergistically to control infection, balance moisture, and nourish regenerating tissue while minimizing adverse effects. Beyond their biochemical actions, these practices embody a holistic therapeutic logic that attends to the wound within the body’s broader ecological and social context, using plant material, tactile dressing, and ritualized care to support physiological resilience and community-centered convalescence.

Myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) is an essential oil with a rich history. It was one of the three gifts given to the infant Jesus in the biblical nativity story and was also found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun. Myrrh is also mentioned in both the Bible and the Quran. It has antibacterial and antifungal activities against various bacteria and fungi, as well as anti-inflammatory, local anesthetic, antioxidant and analgesic activities. Myrrh was also used to protect against dry, cracked skin in arid climates, and the Chinese used myrrh to heal wounds before the Tang Dynasty (Bakhtiarian et al., 2017). Sesquiterpenes, fundamental plant compounds found in most essential oils, possess antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-allergenic, and antispasmodic properties (Woollard et al., 2007).

Cotton (predominantly cellulose from Gossypium spp.) has served as a primary wound-care substrate across cultures—used historically as lint, cloth and poultice material for absorption, packing and protection, and subsequently industrialized into sterile gauzes and nonwoven dressings in modern medicine; these traditional uses emphasize absorbency, conformability and ease of application, qualities that underpin contemporary clinical utility (Masoud et al., 2025). Modern scientific evaluation confirms cotton’s favorable physical properties for wound management (high fluid uptake, breathability and mechanical compliance) while also identifying limitations such as residual fibers, potential for microbial colonization under moist conditions and variability in purity that necessitate standardized processing and sterilization for clinical deployment (Jayshree, 2022). Translational biomaterials research has converted cotton and cotton-derived cellulose into engineered wound scaffolds—including regenerated cellulose, cellulose acetate electrospun nanofibers, nanocellulose hydrogels and composite dressings functionalized with antimicrobial agents (silver, iodine), biopolymers (chitosan, collagen) or bioactive payloads—demonstrating that cotton-based matrices can be tuned for porosity, fluid handling, mechanical properties and cell-supportive surfaces conducive to re-epithelialization and tissue regeneration. While preclinical and translational studies support the use of cotton-derived scaffolds as biocompatible, modifiable platforms for topical delivery and structural support in wound healing, attention to sterility, endotoxin control, surface modification and thorough in vivo safety testing remains essential before broad clinical adoption (Kerwald et al., 2022).

In northern Peru, the resin of A. compacta is used in the form of plasters for pneumonia, rheumatism, and wound healing. With its resin, 'patches’ are prepared that are placed on the back for pain or lung diseases, as well as 'healing patches’ for 'flesh openings’ mixed with ground snake or lizard skin and mixed with plants such as 'ñaca tola’ Baccharis santelicis Phil, Asteraceae, 'rue’ Ruta chalepensis, Rutaceae or 'wormwood’ Artemisia absinthium L. Asteraceae and 'molle’ Schinus molle, Anacardiaceae (De Baldarrago et al., 2012). A small cloth is used to make the patch to apply it to animal or human bone fractures, bruises, and wounds (Villagrán et al., 1999).

In Table 1 summarizes representative plants historically applied as poultices across different cultures and the maximum level of scientific validation reported for their wound-healing properties; entries combine ethnobotanical use with preclinical and, where available, clinical evidence to indicate translational readiness.

Table 1

Table 1. Different types of plants used in cataplasm in ethnobotanical bibliography with their respective levels of scientific validation.

A total of 100 plant species traditionally used in poultices were documented through ethnobotanical fieldwork. Each species was subsequently classified according to its highest level of scientific validation for wound-healing activity. Among these, 7% have published clinical studies supporting their topical use, while 19% are supported by preclinical pharmacological reviews or multi-model evidence. In vivo experimental studies (e.g., excision/incision wound models in animals) were identified for 33% of the species, and 25% have demonstrated relevant activity in vitro, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, or fibroblast proliferation assays. The remaining 17% are supported exclusively by ethnobotanical records, with no published laboratory or clinical validation to date. This classification provides a reproducible framework for prioritizing species for future pharmacological screening and translational research.

3.5 Mechanistic insights, toxicology gaps, and integrated methodological advances

Despite progress in mapping cellular and molecular pathways of cutaneous repair, a persistent and critical gap is the limited and uneven characterization of the mechanisms of action, adverse effects, and cytotoxicity of many medicinal plants proposed for wound care. Much of the ethnobotanical literature reports empirical efficacy and traditional preparation methods but lacks systematic pharmacological profiling, standardized toxicology, and mechanistic validation in physiologically relevant models. This gap has three practical consequences: (1) it impedes rational candidate selection for translational development because safety windows and dose–response relationships remain unclear; (2) it risks overlooking cell-type specific toxicity (for example, differential effects on keratinocytes, fibroblasts, endothelial cells and immune populations) that could undermine healing; and (3) it disconnects preparation/dose practices preserved in traditional use from the mechanistic and formulation evidence required for clinical adoption.

To address these gaps, the field is moving toward integrated pipelines that combine multi-omics (genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics), cell-based functional assays, and high-content imaging with standardized toxicology platforms that test multiple exposure concentrations, time points, and relevant cell types (keratinocytes, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, and immune populations) (Wang, et al., 2024). The adoption of more physiologically relevant models—from 2-D co-cultures to organotypic 3-D skin constructs—and their linkage to in vivo preclinical studies and phased clinical evaluations will be essential to define therapeutic windows, anticipate adverse events, and enable safe, evidence-based translation of phytomedicines for wound care (Karalija, et al., 2025).

Concurrently, advances in genomics, metabolomics and pathway-focused approaches are improving our ability to connect biosynthetic pathways in medicinal plants with specific bioactive metabolites that act on conserved molecular targets, thereby enhancing candidate selection for wound-repair applications (Karalija, et al., 2025; Hao and Xiao, 2015). However, systematic toxicological characterization remains uneven: many ethnopharmacological reports do not include rigorous cytotoxicity screening, concentration–response data, or physiologically relevant models (Anywar et al., 2022). Where toxicity testing has been performed, standard in vitro assays (e.g., MTT, LDH, live/dead staining) often reveal narrow therapeutic windows or cell-type specific effects that require careful characterization prior to topical or systemic use (Zasheva, et al., 2024).

3.6 Clinical trials of phytomedicine for wound healing

There are numerous experimental studies and only a few clinical trials of phytomedicine for wound healing. These in formulation or loaded in various dressings seem to be a good alternative for the treatment of diabetic wounds (Herman and Herman, 2023). Table 2 briefly describes some approaches used in clinical trials for skin injuries treated with phytomedicine.

Table 2

Table 2. Commercial scaffolds for wound healing.

Clearly, the ClinicalTrials.gov database shows diverse treatments using new technologies, without evidence of clinical study with medicinal plants. Recently, scientific journals published few clinical research of phytotherapeutics in skin wounds. According to our knowledge, there are no comparative trials evaluating herbal dressings against synthetic counterparts in chronic wound management. Despite the potential of traditional medicine in drug discovery, particularly for wound healing, several challenges hinder progress. Extensive testing of numerous natural products has been conducted, yet only a small percentage have advanced to clinical trials as shows Table 3. A review by Assimopoulou and Karapanagioti (Karapanagioti and Assimopoulou, 2016) revealed that only about 6% of traditional plants have been systematically investigated for their wound healing potential. This highlights the necessity for increased research and development to harness the potential of natural products for innovative wound management formulations. The time-consuming nature of drug development and regulatory challenges further impede the mainstream adoption of herbal therapeutics. Herbal therapy may be preferred over modern treatment due to its low cost, limited adverse effects, bioavailability and efficacy (Hajialyani et al., 2018).

Table 3

Table 3. Clinical trials of phytomedicine for wound healing.

Regulatory and pharmacopeial frameworks provide concrete tools to address the standardization challenge for poultice-derived products. The Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC), part of the European Medicines Agency (EMA), in their monograph procedures offer a route to compile the evidence dossier required for regulatory recognition and harmonized assessment of herbal preparations. The European Pharmacopoeia supplies specific standards for herbal substances and preparations that can be adapted for topical matrices, including identity tests, assays, and contaminant limits that form the backbone of clinical-quality production and labeling. Global taxonomic resources improve traceability of source material and minimize nomenclatural ambiguity in regulatory submissions. WHO (World Heath Organization) technical guidance further complements these resources by recommending analytical strategies, contaminant control, and good manufacturing practices tailored to herbal products, which are essential when translating traditional poultice knowledge into clinically acceptable topical therapeutics.

4 Comparison between ancestral poultices and modern scaffolds

As mentioned before, ancestral medicine approaches define wound healing as restoration of tissue integrity, physiological function, psychosocial balance, and relational connectivity with community and environment. Modern biomedical wound care defines healing primarily through measurable endpoints such as infection control, rate of re-epithelialization, granulation tissue formation, and functional recovery, Figure 2. Integrative models recognize these as complementary epistemologies that can be synthesized to address both objective tissue repair and subjective domains that influence outcomes, such as pain, adherence, and psychosocial stress.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Difference between ancestral cataplasm and modern scaffold. A cataplasm consists of a mixture of natural ingredients, such as plants, clays, honey, or seeds, applied to the skin in the affected area to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, or treat wounds. In tissue engineering, a scaffold is a 3D porous structure designed to mimic the natural environment of a tissue and support cell growth to induce tissue regeneration.

As shown in Table 4, a cataplasm consists of a mixture of natural ingredients, such as plants, clays, honey, or seeds, applied to the skin in the affected area to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, or treat wounds. In tissue engineering, a scaffold is a 3D porous structure designed to mimic the natural environment of a tissue and support cell growth to induce tissue regeneration. Modern research into long-acting cataplasms and bioactive dressings echoes these aims by seeking sustained release of antimicrobial and regenerative compounds and improved moisture regulation. Contemporary dermatological scaffolds therefore both continue and formalize ancestral goals, drawing inspiration from poultice composition and function while confronting the challenge of standardizing multicomponent traditional formulations for reproducible, safe use. Advanced dressings and scaffolds offer a route to optimize and scale traditional cataplasms, translating their holistic principles into materials and delivery systems that are globally accessible and scientifically validated.

Table 4

Table 4. A comparative table of ancestral poultices and modern scaffolds.

The general treatment of skin wound healing by modern medicine was very well described in the part I of this article. In summary, it is recommended to follow the guidelines established by the TIME protocol (Tissue debridement, Infection control, Moisture balance and Edge of Wound) (Powers et al., 2016) to accelerate endogenous healing and facilitate the effectiveness of other therapeutic treatments using diverse kinds of dressing.

An ideal wound dressing should have the following characteristics: preserving moisture around the wound, enabling gaseous transmission, biocompatibility, biodegradability, nontoxicity, stimulation of growth factors, ease of changing and removing wound dressings, ability to transfer bioactive compounds to wound sites, and wound protection from infections and microbial growth (Rezvani Ghomi et al., 2019). Wound dressings have evolved significantly over the years, transitioning from crude applications of plant herbs, animal fat, and honey to sophisticated tissue-engineered scaffolds (Boateng et al., 2008).

Dressings are classified in several ways, depending on their function in the wound (e.g., debridement, antibacterial, occlusive, absorbent, adherence), the type of material used to produce the dressing (e.g., hydrocolloid, alginate, collagen), or the technology used for their fabrication (electrospinning, hydrogel, 3D impression, nanotechnologies).

Traditional dressings include cotton wool, natural or synthetic bandages, and gauzes. Unlike topical pharmaceutical formulations, these dressings are dry and do not provide a moist wound environment. They can be used as primary or secondary dressings, or as part of a composite dressing system with each component performing a specific function (Boateng et al., 2008).

In recent times, regenerative medicine and tissue engineering have gained great interest in scientific and technological advances within modern medicine.

5 Modern technology: tissue engineering

Tissue engineering (TI) is a part of regenerative medicine, which evolved the development of biocompatible three-dimensional porous scaffolds, which provides a suitable microenvironment for cell migration and functional tissue restoration. The goal of tissue engineering is to create functional constructs that restore, improve, or regenerate damaged tissue or an entire organ. These scaffolds are combined with crucial cells and appropriate biomolecules, to be able to regenerate the new functional tissue in vivo into the damaged area (Socci et al., 2023). In the first part of this review we have described different technologies for tissue engineering. Figure 3 shows that the combination of cells, bioactive molecules and scaffolds is known as the tissue engineering triad.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Basic pillars of tissue engineering.

5.1 Tissue engineering in experimental studies

There are many ways to evaluate preclinical assay for tissue engineering such as in vitro study (by using isolated cells in cell culture plate), in ex vivo study (by using whole tissue or eggs from animal in tissue culture laboratory), and in vivo study (by using whole animal for wound healing, which give a more complete physiologic assessment of wound healing compared to in vitro and ex vivo) (Thakur et al., 2011).

For in vitro study, the cells of wound healing events are seeded in the scaffold, and it is evaluated for cytotoxicity. Thus, for example, a polymerizable skin hydrogel consisting of keratinocytes and fibroblast entrapped within a fibrin scaffold was developed and analyzed in cell culture by immunofluorescence study after 7 days (Persinal-Medina et al., 2022).

For in vivo study, small experimental animals, mostly mammals as the model is usually chosen. Some advantageous for wound healing studies is that they are relatively inexpensive, easily available, economical to keep and maintain, and allows exploration of pathophysiology of wound healing in real time (Thakur et al., 2011). Thus, for example, In this study, a polymerizable skin hydrogel consisting of keratinocytes and fibroblast entrapped within a fibrin scaffold was evaluated in vivo wound healing model of skin damage in the back of the athymic mouse (Persinal-Medina et al., 2022). On the other hand, in tissue engineering, drug delivery systems achieve enhanced therapeutic effects of a drug or natural substance at a damaged site with minimal toxicological effects. These systems are liposomes, microspheres, gels, prodrugs, which are transported by biopolymers to ensure biocompatibility, biodegradability and low immunogenicity in the affected area (Jacob et al., 2018).

Nowadays, electrospun nanofiber mats are often used for bioengineered wound healing (Langwald et al., 2023). Thus, it was reported that electrospun nanofiber mats based on polylactic acid composited with silver nanoparticles could be a good candidate for wound dressing applications (Jamnongkan et al., 2024). Hydrogels are networks of hydrophilic polymers with a three-dimensional structure that allows them to retain significant amounts of water but do not dissolve, being appropriate for use in wound healing (Boateng et al., 2008; Nizam et al., 2025). In this context, Persinal-Medina and collaborators developed a polymerizable skin hydrogel composed of trapped keratinocytes and fibroblasts within a fibrin structure to improve the treatment of skin wounds (Persinal-Medina et al., 2022). Knowing that peptides are abundant in the human body and have diverse biological functions, their adaptability as peptide-based hydrogels that allow cell adhesion, migration, and proliferation, has made them an important potential biomaterial for chronic wound healing (Nizam et al., 2025). Interestingly, hydrogels based on elastin-derived peptides as a potential drug delivery system were designed successfully, synthesized, and characterized for soft tissue engineering and wound healing applications (Al Musaimi et al., 2024).

5.2 Tissue engineering in clinical trials

Advances in this area can be found on ClinicalTrials.gov, which is a database of publicly and privately funded clinical trials conducted around the world. Table 5 describes some clinical trials that are being carried out for the healing of acute and chronic wounds, such as cell therapy, pharmacological treatment, xenograft, etc. There were no observed studies with phytomedicine or herbal scaffolds.

Table 5

Table 5. Clinical trials of modern medicine for wound healing.

5.3 Tissue engineering in the market

Recently, there are diverse alternatives within tissue engineering as treatment for wound healing as shown in Table 5 according to our knowledge, there is still no commercial product with plant extracts in tissue engineering.

6 Points of convergence between traditional medicine and medical technology

Ancestral medical systems are deeply rooted in a holistic understanding of health, where the human body is inseparable from its natural, social, and spiritual environment. Healing is not merely the resolution of physical symptoms but the restoration of balance between the individual, the land, and the community. Traditional practices emphasize relational proximity, ritualized care, and ecological attunement, recognizing that emotional support, seasonal rhythms, and local biodiversity all influence recovery. As Baez and Ramos (2024) note, Latin American ancestral medicine views illness as a disruption of harmony, and healing as a process of reconnection—with plants, ancestors, and communal bonds. This perspective aligns with global Indigenous frameworks that prioritize interconnectedness and place-based knowledge as therapeutic agents (Marques et al., 2021).

While modern biomedicine has historically focused on mechanistic and reductionist models, recent advances reflect a growing shift toward ecological and patient-centered innovation. The past 5 years have witnessed a surge in research and industrial innovation directed at sustainable wound dressings. These efforts span the full product lifecycle, from renewable material sourcing translational research and green chemistry-based synthesis to energy-efficient manufacturing, smart sensor integration, controlled drug release systems, and environmentally benign disposal methods (Nguyen et al., 2023). Critically, natural biopolymers such as cellulose, chitosan, alginate, collagen, and gelatin now serve as the foundational materials enabling eco-friendly, clinically robust, and scalable solutions. Likewise, smart wound-monitoring devices and biosensors allow clinicians to track healing dynamics in real time, enhancing responsiveness and personalization (Goyal and Chauhan, 2024).

6.1 Strengthening translational pipelines

Much of the ethnobotanical literature reports empirical efficacy and traditional preparation methods but lacks systematic pharmacological profiling, standardized toxicology, and mechanistic validation in physiologically relevant models. Despite important advances in mapping cellular and molecular processes in cutaneous repair, translating traditional phytomedicines into safe, effective wound therapies requires a coordinated research pipeline that explicitly links ethnobotanical knowledge to mechanistic and toxicological evaluation. Recent methodological advances—multi-omics (transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics), high-content phenotypic assays, organotypic 3-D skin models, and standardized in vitro toxicology platforms—now permit rigorous mapping from plant chemistry to cellular responses and safety profiles. Combining these tools with targeted in vivo models and well-designed clinical trials enables mechanistic validation of bioactive extracts while preserving translational relevance. Reviews and conceptual syntheses emphasize both the mechanistic promise of plant-derived compounds for wound repair and the current heterogeneity of toxicology data, supporting the need for integrated, standardized pipelines (Pereira and Bártolo, 2016; Peña and Martin, 2024). Systematically linking ancestral practice to standardized toxicology and mechanistic pipelines enables identification of phytomedicines with both cultural legitimacy and demonstrable safety and mechanism-of-action profiles, thereby accelerating responsible translation for wound care.

6.2 Sustainability across the value chain

Adherence to sustainable design principles enables the dual fulfillment of clinical requirements and global sustainability targets. For instance, natural biopolymers extracted from agricultural or marine waste (chitosan from crustacean shells, cellulose from plant residues) close material loops and foster circular economies (Singh et al., 2022). The implementation of green chemistry also reduces the environmental toll of synthetic steps by favoring green solvents and enzymatic crosslinking over traditional, more hazardous methods. Furthermore, the adoption of biodegradable polymers and compostable formulations ensures that, upon disposal, dressings reintegrate into the environment safely (Ragab et al., 2025). Increasingly, energy metrics (CO₂ emissions, water consumption) and production waste (e.g., trimmings and sprues) are monitored in compliance with ISO 14001 environmental management systems, with documented reductions in carbon output post-certification. Closed-loop recycling and material traceability are now integral to regulatory and procurement compliance, particularly under the EU Medical Device Regulation and emerging FDA lifecycle directives (Mariello et al., 2024).

By utilizing green solvents such as ILs and DES, the risks of cytotoxic residue and environmental contamination decrease markedly, which is important given reports of adverse reactions from residual organics in electrospun nanofiber dressings (Masoud et al., 2025). In parallel, enzyme-mediated crosslinking advances have unlocked a new class of hydrogels with tuned mechanical and bioactive profiles, all constructed without the need for toxic reagents (Singh et al., 2022). For example, gelatin hydrogels crosslinked via transglutaminase or tyrosinase have been shown to improve cell compatibility and healing in multiple preclinical studies. Such enzyme-catalyzed processes are scalable, reproducible, and conducive to regulatory approval due to their safety profiles (Nguyen et al., 2023). Green nanotechnology represents an emerging frontier wherein natural compounds (e.g., curcumin or plant polyphenols) serve both as reducing and stabilizing agents for metal nanoparticles, which can then be seamlessly embedded in biopolymer hydrogels for antimicrobial and antioxidant functions (Ragab et al., 2025). These integrated platforms demonstrate the multifaceted utility of green chemistry, serving not only environmental sustainability but also enhancing the biological performance of wound dressing (Zhao et al., 2023).

All of the above align with recent recommendations for sustainable wound-dressing development and green biomaterials selection: Natural polymers such as cellulose, chitosan, alginate, collagen, and gelatin offer renewable sources and inherent biodegradability and bioactivity; they are widely reviewed as front-line options for sustainable wound matrices; plant-derived and upcycled feedstocks (e.g., agricultural residues processed into nanocellulose or lignin derivatives) can reduce competition with food chains and lower embodied carbon in scaffold production; biobased composites and hybrid materials combine natural polymers with minimal, well-characterized synthetic components to tune mechanical, degradation, and drug-release properties while keeping environmental footprint low (Ansari and Darvishi, 2024).

6.3 Smart wound dressings

Smart wound dressings are envisioned as active participants in wound monitoring and therapy, incorporating sensors and delivery modules to monitor critical wound parameters and deliver therapeutic agents in response to environmental cues.

Smart biopolymer dressings now routinely incorporate biosensors for pH (infection indicator), temperature (inflammation/fever detection), humidity (moisture balance), and sometimes oxygen tension (to assess tissue perfusion).For instance, hydrogel membranes incorporating temperature and humidity sensors, as well as air-pressure sensors and BLE transmitters, transmit real-time data regarding the wound microenvironment directly to smartphones for clinician analysis (Zhang et al., 2021) Some commercial systems also support in situ drug activation or delivery upon detection of specific signals—such as local pH shift signaling infection, triggering local antimicrobial release.

The majority of sensing platforms are now built upon cellulose, alginate, gelatin, or chitosan-based matrices, enabling green integration and subsequent biodegradation of the sensing pad—or, in the case of reusable electronics, facilitating easy separation and recycling of active components (Zhao et al., 2023).

Hydrogels provide a moist wound environment, enable sustained release of growth factors or antimicrobials, and can be engineered to respond to pH, enzymes, or temperature changes in the wound bed. Electrospun scaffolds and foams recreate extracellular matrix architecture, support cell infiltration, and act as reservoirs for antibacterial agents or pro-regenerative molecules. Antimicrobial delivery systems include ionic silver, antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides, and plant-derived compounds embedded for sustained, local action that reduces systemic exposure and resistance risk (Alberts et al., 2025) Sensor-integrated systems incorporate simple colorimetric indicators or electronic sensors to report infection, pH shifts, or moisture, enabling earlier clinical decisions and targeted dressing changes (Zhang et al., 2021).

Smart dressings offer advantages for chronic and complex wounds by improving infection control, reducing dressing change frequency, and promoting faster closure, which can lower long-term healthcare costs and hospital burden Low-cost, locally adaptable versions of smart materials and scalable hydrogel platforms improve access in resource-limited settings and advance sustainability by minimizing waste and enabling use of renewable or biodegradable polymers (Alberts et al., 2025).

Clinical translation requires rigorous randomized trials, standardized outcome measures, and reproducible manufacturing to ensure safety and efficacy. Challenges include regulatory approval pathways for combination products, ensuring long-term biocompatibility, avoiding antimicrobial resistance, and validating sensor accuracy in real wounds (Zhang et al., 2021).

Integration of biocultural knowledge such as validated plant actives into smart matrices, greener manufacturing, and participatory clinical studies with communities can enhance cultural relevance, sustainability, and equitable access while preserving scientific rigor (Alberts et al., 2025).

6.4 Clinical, regulatory, and socioecological considerations

Efficacy and safety must not be compromised for sustainability; every green formulation requires standardized characterization, biocompatibility testing, and appropriately designed clinical trials to demonstrate non-inferiority or added benefit. Life cycle assessment (LCA) and carbon accounting should be integrated early in product development to quantify environmental gains and tradeoffs across sourcing, manufacturing, transport, use, and disposal. Equity and socioeconomic realities favor locally sourced materials and low-cost green processes that can be adopted in resource-limited settings while preserving community biocultural rights and benefit-sharing when traditional biological resources or knowledge are used.

Sustainability frameworks and regulatory strategies that align environmental metrics with clinical endpoints accelerate responsible translation of green biomaterials into practice (Gupta et al., 2025).

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted in 1992, seeks to conserve biodiversity, promote its sustainable use, and ensure fair benefit-sharing from genetic resources. The Nagoya Protocol, established in 2010 as a supplementary agreement, provides specific guidelines for access to genetic resources and equitable compensation for local and indigenous communities. Together, these frameworks foster collaboration between researchers, traditional knowledge holders, and industry, enabling innovative applications of medicinal plants while emphasizing transparency, equity, and respect for biocultural heritage. Nevertheless, implementation remains uneven, and many communities still face challenges in asserting their epistemic and territorial sovereignty.

6.5 Holistic frameworks for healing

Many traditional topical agents contain bioactive classes such as flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolic acids, polysaccharides, and antimicrobial peptides that directly modulate microbial burden, oxidative stress, and matrix remodelling, thereby accelerating closure and improving tissue quality. Bee products disrupt biofilms, reduce local inflammation, and promote re-epithelialization through osmotic and immunomodulatory mechanisms that are supported by systematic reviews and translational studies. Psychosocial and ritual components influence neuroendocrine and immune pathways relevant to wound repair through stress reduction and improved adherence, as reported in integrative care literature.In rural contexts the validation and local production of standardized ancestral formulations can strengthen primary wound care capacity, reduce dependence on centralized supply chains, and preserve living ethnobotanical knowledge while supporting biodiversity stewardship. In urban contexts integrating validated ancestral-derived dressings into hospital formularies and community clinics can increase culturally concordant options, improve adherence among patients with traditional health beliefs, and provide cost-effective alternatives for selected indications.

7 Discussion

The trajectory from ancient cataplasms to contemporary biopolymer–plant composite wound dressings illustrates both a reverence for traditional knowledge and a commitment to scientific advancement.

First, ethnographic anchoring and prioritization should document traditional preparation methods, routes of administration, dosing heuristics, and contextual uses through participatory fieldwork, and prioritize taxa and preparations that are culturally salient and repeatedly reported across independent sources (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). Second, standardized extract preparation and chemical profiling should reproduce traditional preparations alongside standardized extracts and apply LC-MS/MS, NMR and metabolomics to define preparation-dependent chemotypes and identify candidate bioactive metabolites (Wang et al., 2024) Third, multi-tiered toxicology screening must be applied early and systematically: concentration–response testing using MTT, LDH, and live–dead assays across relevant cell types (keratinocytes, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, macrophages), high-content phenotypic imaging, and preliminary genotoxicity screens; these in vitro data should be complemented by organotypic 3-D skin constructs and short-term in vivo wound models to assess tissue-level toxicity and healing dynamics (Mosmann, 1983). Fourth, mechanistic interrogation should combine transcriptomics, proteomics and targeted pathway analyses with functional assays to map effects on inflammation resolution (cytokine networks and immune phenotypes), cell migration and proliferation, extracellular matrix remodeling (MMP/TIMP balance), angiogenesis (VEGF signalling), and redox homeostasis; biochemical target validation (for example, inhibitor/rescue experiments) should be used to establish causality.

Fifth, interpretation must be iterative and culturally embedded: mechanistic and toxicology findings should be mapped back onto ethnographic data by comparing experimental doses and preparation conditions to traditional practice, interpreting mechanistic signatures in light of preparation-dependent chemistry and reported community outcomes, and validating interpretations through participatory workshops with knowledge holders. Finally, ethical governance and benefit-sharing protocols—securing prior informed consent, documenting provenance, and defining equitable benefit-sharing arrangements—must be implemented before translational development, with community-driven priorities (sustainability, access, and knowledge sovereignty) embedded in candidate selection and clinical planning (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001).

On the other hand, advances in materials science have enabled significant improvements in the delivery, safety, and efficacy of plant-derived bioactives for wound care. Biopolymer-based technologies—ranging from hydrogels and nanofiber mats to 3D-printed, sensor-equipped constructs—draw inspiration from ancestral practices while addressing pressing clinical challenges of the 21st century, including chronic, infected, and non-healing wounds. With continued laboratory and clinical validation, robust regulatory pathways, and increasing global adoption, biopolymer–herbal dressings are poised to remain at the forefront of advanced, personalized wound care, offering faster healing, fewer complications, and improved accessibility.

Nevertheless, these technologies often lack the human warmth, ritual depth, and communal presence that characterize ancestral care. Future biomedical development must therefore extend beyond technical precision and environmental compatibility to embrace integrative frameworks that restore the emotional, ecological, and spiritual dimensions of healing. Such recognition of life’s natural origins and relational ethics is essential to ensure that innovation remains culturally resonant and socially responsible (Aguessy, 2023). In rural and indigenous communities, poultices symbolize local wisdom, autonomy, and a living connection to the environment. Trust in ancestral practitioners and recipes frequently complements, rather than opposes, interest in technological innovations. Yet cultural resistance to exclusive reliance on high-technology care and the perceived remoteness of biomedical interventions highlight barriers to implementation that demand participatory and culturally sensitive engagement (Buck and Hamilton, 2011). Interpretation of ancestral knowledge, and developments based on them should be iterative and participatory, mapping experimental findings back to traditional practice, comparing doses and preparations, and validating conclusions with knowledge holders.

Furthermore, sustainable sourcing, equitable benefit-sharing, and the strengthening of local supply chains are critical to maintaining biocultural continuity while simultaneously generating income and resilience for communities. Contemporary clinical practice increasingly acknowledges traditional medicine alternatives when safety and demonstrable benefits are established, while advanced biopolymer technologies remain preferred for complex wounds and vulnerable patients—such as those with diabetes, older adults, or immunocompromised individuals—due to their high efficacy and infection control. Traditional poultice-based practices retain clinical value as adjuncts in early stages, for prevention, and for emotional and relational support during recovery. Patient empowerment, self-care, and education on alarm signs, combined with supervised home use of cataplasms, represent areas of greatest acceptance for ancestral–technological integration, provided medical oversight and pathways for escalation to advanced care are ensured.

Finally, the convergence of traditional, safety and technological modalities raises ethical and regulatory concerns, including the protection of local knowledge, equitable access, intellectual property rights, and data sovereignty. Protective governance models that center community consent, benefit-sharing, and cultural integrity are essential to prevent exploitative commercialization. Regulatory frameworks must balance respect for biocultural practices with the demands of safety and evidence, promoting research designs that are both scientifically rigorous and culturally appropriate. When pursued ethically, transparently, and in participatory collaboration, such convergence enhances innovation, cultural relevance, and public health effectiveness, fostering models of care and research that align sustainability, social justice, and scientific validity.

8 Conclusion

A truly integrative approach combines biologically active natural products with advanced delivery science and culturally grounded relational care, offering a multidimensional strategy to optimize healing outcomes. Realizing this potential requires systematic phytochemical characterization, translational evaluation, and ethical partnerships with knowledge holders, alongside implementation science that adapts interventions to both urban and rural contexts.

The design of technologies that honor ancestral wisdom must also incorporate principles of green sourcing and sustainable manufacturing, prioritizing renewable and low-impact biomaterials, solvent-efficient or aqueous processing, and materials engineered for biodegradability and end-of-life management to minimize environmental burden while maintaining clinical performance. Accessibility is further enhanced by prioritizing locally sourced feedstocks, low-cost scalable production, and community-centered supply chains, which align technological translation with socioeconomic realities and ensure that innovations remain contextually relevant and affordable.

Responsible convergence additionally demands the protection of biocultural rights, community consent, benefit-sharing mechanisms, and data sovereignty, together with regulatory pathways that enable culturally appropriate evidence generation without commodifying traditional knowledge. Such governance frameworks foster trust and prevent exploitative commercialization. Finally, research programs should integrate rigorous preclinical and clinical evaluation of sustainable biomaterials with participatory co-design involving traditional practitioners, incorporate life-cycle assessment early in development, and validate scalable green manufacturing processes to ensure reproducible efficacy, safety, and environmental gains.

Author contributions

AGR: Conceptualization, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. APR: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing, Validation. SK: Validation, Visualization, Writing – review and editing. KN: Writing – review and editing. CF: Validation, Writing – original draft. NK: Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The authors declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This work was funded by PIP 2022 (CONICET) and PIUNT E741 of the Secretariat of Science, Art and Technological Innovation (SCAIT, UNT).

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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The authors declare that no Generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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