Exploring the effect of climate change on food supply chains in Africa: a systematic review with a focus on South Africa

Introduction: The food supply chain is a complex system encompassing multiple elements and stakeholders, spanning agricultural production to consumption, and is shaped by factors such as trade policies, food safety regulations, transportation logistics, labor availability, and global health crises. Addressing potential disruptions in food supply chains requires a keen focus on food availability, spanning production, distribution, and trade, emphasizing the urgency of proactive adaptation measures. The interconnection of food systems with geopolitical and environmental factors requires extensive adaptation strategies. Smallholder farmers are vulnerable to the effects of climate change as they depend on rain-fed agriculture, are exposed to climate variability, have limited access to markets and may lack technical knowledge, this negatively affects their overall income and participation in the food supply chain. Effective responses require collaboration among stakeholders at various levels to ensure the resilience and sustainability of food systems in the face of climate change. Understanding the complex interplay between climate change and the food supply chain is important for developing effective strategies to mitigate risks, enhance adaptation, and promote sustainability.

Methods: A systematic literature review was conducted across three databases: Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar, to assess the impact of climate change on the food supply chain of smallholder farmers, focusing on livelihoods, food security, resilience, and adaptation strategies. The search included studies published in English from 1993 to 2023, employing Boolean operators to refine results with key terms such as “Climate,” “Change,” “Food Supply Chain,” “Smallholder Farmers,” and “Adaptation Strategies.” The initial search yielded 20,889 articles, which were screened for relevance based on their titles and abstracts. This process resulted in the exclusion of 10,585 articles from the study. The full texts of the remaining 10,304 articles were then reviewed. After the full-text screening process, 143 peer-reviewed studies were included in the study. The quality of each study was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Inventory (JBI) checklist, ensuring rigorous standards for bias reduction. The assessment followed PRISMA guidelines to enhance transparency and replicability. Data was imported into NVivo 12 for thematic analysis, identifying key themes pertaining to agricultural production, food safety, distribution, and resilience. This methodical approach provided a comprehensive overview of the impacts of climate change on smallholder farmers’ food supply chains.

Results: Nvivo12 was used for the screening process. After inputting the articles into NVivo 12, a manual review was conducted to check for any remaining duplicates. The files were imported into NVivo 12, and then sorted by tile and author to bring potential duplicates next to each other. Thereafter the coding feature was used to tag the duplicates. A manual verification was then conducted, as NVivo does not allow for the automatic deletion of duplicates. The duplicates were then grouped and confirmed. Thereafter they were manually deleted from the project file. 26 articles from Web of Science, 20 from Scopus, and 97 from Google Scholar, totalling 143 articles were used in the systematic review. The production-to-consumption processes of the food supply chain are significantly affected by climate change. The shifts in temperature and rainfall influence the yields, quality, and harvest timing of crops. The extent of crop damage due to extreme weather events causes shortages and price hikes. Consumer demand, food safety, affordability, availability, and nutritional value are all impacted by the effects of climate change, which negatively affects the overall well-being of households. To overcome the challenges brought upon by this change in weather conditions, adaptation strategies which are actions taken to adjust the impacts of climate change and reduce the vulnerability to make farmers resilient are implemented. These include altered farming practices and water management. Mitigation strategies are also implemented, this is done to prevent or reduce causes of climate change. This consists of improving energy efficiency, reforesting and lowering greenhouse gases. These adaptation strategies vary depending on the region due to different climate conditions and land tenure. To adapt to the changes in the environment effectively throughout the supply chain, especially in crop production, the active laws and policies need to be reviewed.

Discussion: Overall, climate change disrupts food systems and exacerbates food insecurity, necessitating coordinated efforts such as the promotion of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), providing access to financial services, Climate information systems, strengthening of food security programs and policies such as policies that promote agroecologic approaches to encourage the smallholder farmers to work with the ecosystems, market access, integration of climate and agricultural policy and trade policies and sustainable land policies to ensure sustainability and resilience, particularly in vulnerable regions. The multifaceted and urgent nature of the impact of climate change on food supply chains in Africa, notably South Africa, necessitates comprehensive attention and proactive measures to mitigate and adapt to the challenges posed. Effective responses require collaborative efforts among stakeholders at various levels to ensure the resilience and sustainability of food systems in the face of climatic uncertainty.

1 Introduction

Climate change signifies widespread alterations in temperature and atmospheric conditions, which significantly impact agricultural production and the global food supply chain (Burnham and Ma, 2016; Paloviita and Järvelä, 2019; Guo et al., 2019; Zavala-Alcívar et al., 2020). These impacts include reduced crop yields, disruptions in logistics, changes in crop composition, and compromised food quality, all of which intensify food insecurity (Tirado et al., 2013; Wheeler and von Braun, 2013; Aung and Chang, 2014; Ivanov et al., 2017; Fan et al., 2021; Shah et al., 2021). Given the regional variability of these impacts, locally tailored mitigation and adaptation strategies are crucial (Awan et al., 2021; Rahman et al., 2022a, 2022b).

In sub-Saharan Africa, particularly South Africa, the effects of climate change intersect with socioeconomic disparities, exacerbating vulnerabilities in food access and nutrition security (Vermeulen et al., 2012; Myers et al., 2017; Nchanji et al., 2021). Studies by Kumari and Garg (2024) found that climate change exacerbates food insecurity, particularly among vulnerable populations, thereby weakening smallholder farmers’ resilience and adaptive capacity to food supply chain disruptions. South Africa’s high Gini Coefficient illustrates this inequality, highlighting how wealthier populations adapt more easily, while poorer communities, especially smallholder farmers, are disproportionately affected (Dennis and Dennis, 2012; Smith, 2020; Luo et al., 2022). These farmers rely heavily on rain-fed agriculture and have limited access to resources and markets, increasing their exposure to climate-related shocks such as droughts, floods, and pest outbreaks (Khan et al., 2020; Amelework et al., 2021).

The broader food system is further strained by climate-induced disruptions in production, processing, distribution, and retailing (Ghadge et al., 2019; Guo, 2023; Kumar and Patel, 2025), as well as by external shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic (Rasul, 2021; Omoruyi et al., 2022). In South Africa, recent climate events like floods in KwaZulu-Natal have severely hindered agricultural productivity and food supply chain functionality (Umetsu and Miura, 2023).

The broader scope of this systematic review, which examines climate change impacts on food supply chains across Africa with a focus on South Africa, is justified by the need to capture both regional diversity and interconnected vulnerabilities. While Africa as a whole faces climate-induced disruptions, ranging from production losses to infrastructure failures, South Africa offers a unique case of relatively advanced agricultural systems within a vulnerable continent. This dual focus allows for comparative insight and highlights cross-border interdependencies, especially in light of regional trade and continental policy frameworks such as the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), which promotes agricultural growth and food security, and the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), which aims to enhance intra-African trade. Thematically, it strengthens the review by linking climate science, food security, and policy responses across multiple scales.

Addressing these interconnected challenges requires a systems-thinking approach that integrates climate-smart agricultural practices, supportive policy frameworks, and technological innovation (Mandvi et al., 2024; Kumari and Agarwal, 2025; Kumari et al., 2025). However, current literature lacks comprehensive assessments of how climate change affects all stages of the food supply chain in developing countries. This study seeks to fill that gap by exploring smallholder farmers’ vulnerabilities, adaptation strategies, and policy needs, particularly in the context of rural South Africa. The objectives of this study are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Table 1. Research objectives of the study.

2 Definition of terms

Resilience: the capacity of individuals, households, communities, or systems to anticipate, absorb, adapt to, and recover from the adverse effects of shocks and stresses—such as climate change, economic disruptions, or natural disasters—while maintaining or improving their essential functions, structures, and identity (FAO, 2015).

Food security: exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. It comprises four key dimensions: availability, access, utilisation, and stability (FAO, 2008).

Adaptation strategies: refer to the specific actions, practices, and adjustments made by individuals, communities, institutions, or systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects. These strategies aim to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities, particularly in the context of reducing vulnerability and enhancing resilience to climate change in agriculture and food systems (IPCC, 2022).

Livelihoods: encompass the capabilities, assets (both material and social), and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is considered sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable income opportunities without undermining the natural resource base (Chambers and Conway, 1992).

Climate change: refers to a long-term alteration in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other elements of the Earth’s climate system. In the agricultural context, it includes both anthropogenic (human-induced) and natural drivers that influence food production, water availability, and ecosystem stability (IPCC, 2021).

Food supply chain: comprises all the processes involved in the production, processing, distribution, and consumption of food. In agriculture, this includes input suppliers, farmers, post-harvest handlers, processors, transporters, retailers, and consumers. The chain is vulnerable to disruptions caused by climate change, such as extreme weather events, pest outbreaks, and infrastructure damage (Garnett, 2011).

Agriculture: is the practice of cultivating soil, growing crops, and raising animals for food, fibre, fuel, and other products essential to sustaining life. It is a critical sector for economic development, rural livelihoods, and food security, and is highly sensitive to climate variability and long-term climate change (FAO, 2013).

Smallholder farmers: are agricultural producers operating on relatively small plots of land, typically relying on family labour and limited external inputs. They often face constraints such as limited access to markets, finance, and technology, making them especially vulnerable to climate change impacts (HLPE, 2013).

3 Methodology

A systematic review was conducted to assess the effects of climate change on the food supply chain by adhering to the PRISMA-P guidelines (Selçuk, 2019) for systematic reviews and the methodological framework for scoping reviews.

3.1 Data sources

A comprehensive literature search was conducted for this systematic review using the Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. Scopus and Web of Science were used to identify peer-reviewed articles to ensure broad coverage of the relevant literature. Pre-defined keywords and exclusion and inclusion criteria were applied to ensure that pertinent articles related to the research question were included in the systematic review (Arksey and O’Malley, 2005).

3.2 Search strategy/search strings

The search strategy aimed to identify studies relevant to the research question (What is the impact of climate change on the food supply chain of smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, food security, resilience, and adaptation strategies?). The searches were refined to include results that were published in English only and between 1993 and 2023. The results were assessed by two investigators to ensure an unbiased study with minimal human error. After a rigorous initial systematic search, the investigators double-checked the search results, ensuring they met the inclusion criteria, as outlined in section 3.3.

The search strategy employed Boolean operators (AND, OR) to refine results based on specific keywords such as “Climate,” “Change,” “Food Supply Chain,” “Agriculture,” and “Smallholder Farmers.” The search terms “Adaptation Strategies,” “Livelihoods,” “Food Security,” and “Resilience” were used to broaden the search. A total of 20,889 articles were initially identified by applying this search strategy across databases. This extensive pool of literature was then carefully screened to include only studies that met the established eligibility criteria, focusing on peer-reviewed publications in English from 1993 to 2023.

The retrieved documents relevant to the search criteria were exported to QRS NVivo 12 for qualitative data analysis (Dhakal, 2022). NVivo 12 was used to enhance efficiency, transparency, and rigour of the review process by facilitating data management, thematic analysis, and collaboration (QSR International, 2018). It also supported quality assurance and adherence to reporting standards. This rigorous approach ensured that the review process was systematic and comprehensive.

The search strings used for the systematic review are mentioned below:

3.2.1 Web of science

TITLE-ABS-KEY (climate AND change AND food AND supply AND chain AND agriculture OR smallholder AND farmers OR adaptation AND strategies OR livelihoods OR food AND security OR resilience) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE,” English”)).

3.2.2 Scopus

Climate AND change AND food AND supply AND chain AND agriculture OR smallholder AND farmers OR adaptation AND strategies OR livelihoods OR food AND security OR resilience AND PUBYEAR > 1992 AND PUBYEAR < 2024 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE,” ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE,” English”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE,” j”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (PUBSTAGE,” final”)).

3.2.3 Google scholar

Climate Change AND Food Supply Chain AND Agriculture OR Smallholder Farmers OR Adaptation Strategies OR Livelihoods OR Food Security Resilience. The search was refined to articles published in English between the period of 1993 and2023.

3.3 Inclusion and exclusion criteria/selection process

The eligibility criteria for this review focused on studies addressing the impact of climate change on various aspects of the food supply chain. The outcome variables pertained to the effects of climate change on the different components of the food supply chain. Both qualitative and quantitative research designs were included, provided they were peer-reviewed and published in English. Literature was sourced from the Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases, limited to peer-reviewed studies published between 1993 and 2023.

Papers that were not published in English or peer-reviewed were excluded. The exclusion of non-English publications represents a potential limitation of this study, as it may have restricted the inclusion of relevant research conducted in other languages. Papers with only one abstract were excluded. The researcher screened papers for relevance based on title and abstract,. Papers focusing on Africa and South Africa were prioritsed over those that centred on other countries. Discrepancies in the relevance of articles were resolved through discussions with the researcher. The full texts of the potentially relevant articles were reviewed to confirm their eligibility. The inclusion and exclusion criteria utilised in this study are summarised in Table 2.

Table 2

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria used in the study to select the 143 articles for the systematic review.

From the initial search, 27,249 articles were sourced from Web of Science, 7,232 from Scopus, and 20,500 from Google Scholar. During the abstract screening phase, 10,585 articles were deemed ineligible and excluded. The full texts of the remaining 10,304 articles were then assessed for further eligibility, leading to the removal of 10,161 articles due to a lack of relevant information or appropriateness for the systematic review. A total of 143 articles met the eligibility criteria for the study, comprising 26 articles from Web of Science, 20 from Scopus, and 97 from Google Scholar, making a total of 143 articles included in the systematic review (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart showing the literature search procedure for this systematic review.

3.4 Risk of bias assessment

Each identified study used in this systematic review was assessed for bias using the JBI checklist (Munn et al., 2015), as illustrated in Table 3. It focused on factors such as the appropriateness of the title, the quality of the abstract, and whether the article had undergone peer review (Moher et al., 2015). The researcher scanned the articles to determine whether they met the eligibility criteria. The studies were then checked using the JBI and PRISMA Guidelines 2020 checklists.

Table 3

Table 3. Joanna Briggs inventory (JBI) checklist used in the study.

A dual review was conducted by two researchers to reduce selection bias. The authors and journal names were blinded during the review to limit potential bias. The process outlined above was used to reduce and control for bias in this study. Only studies that met these high standards were considered in the final analysis. Additionally, the results were reported following PRISMA guidelines to ensure transparency and replicability in the review process (Shamseer et al., 2015). The use of the PRISMA checklist as a guideline prevented bias in reporting (Moher et al., 2015). This systematic approach allowed for a robust selection of studies that aligned with the review objective, investigating the impact of climate change on various components of the food supply chain of smallholder farmers.

A risk of bias assessment was conducted on all 143 included studies using the JBI checklist. The majority of studies (85%) met over 80% of the JBI criteria, indicating high methodological quality. Key strengths observed included clearly stated research objectives, well-defined inclusion criteria, and appropriate data analysis methods. However, a small proportion of studies (approximately 10%) showed unclear reporting on sample size justification or ethical considerations, which were noted as minor risks but retained due to their thematic relevance. The results of the bias assessment are summarised in Table 3, which outlines the distribution of quality scores across the reviewed studies.

Potential biases, such as language and database bias, were acknowledged and addressed throughout the review process. To reduce language bias, the review was limited to English-language studies, which is a common constraint but was necessary due to resource limitations. Database bias was mitigated by using three diverse and reputable sources: Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar, to ensure comprehensive coverage of peer-reviewed literature. Additionally, duplicate records were manually removed, and a dual-reviewer screening process was employed to enhance objectivity and minimise selection bias.

3.5 Quality assessment

Quality assessment of the studies identified using the three databases was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines and checklist, as shown in Table 4 (Shamseer et al., 2015). This was performed to ensure a transparent, systematic evaluation process. An independent reviewer evaluated the quality of each articles included in the study and removed those that were not eligible based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria mentioned in Section 3.3.

Table 4

Table 4. PRISMA guidelines 2020 checklist used in the study.

The PRISMA guidelines, as seen in Figure 1, indicated that the majority of the articles did not fit the scope of work or were of lower quality; therefore, they were not included in the study. The process of assessing the quality of the studies included in the review aimed to enhance the reliability of the study and provide a clearer understanding of the evidence on the topic (Shamseer et al., 2015).

NVivo 12 was selected for its advanced capabilities in managing and analysing large volumes of qualitative data, offering more efficient organisation and coding than tools like Excel or Covidence. Manual duplicate removal within NVivo ensured data accuracy and integrity, enhancing methodological transparency for all readers (Dhakal, 2022). Once the documents were imported into NVivo 12, themes were created to focus on emerging codes, such as adaptation and mitigation measures, resilience, and the global food system. Matrix coding was employed to identify trends and explore relationships, thus assessing the effects of climate change on the food supply chain. Figure 2 illustrates the analytical process used in this study.

Figure 2

Figure 2. The data analysis process was implemented for the articles that met the inclusion criteria.

Inter-rater reliability was ensured by having multiple researchers independently code a subset of the data using NVivo. The coding outputs were then compared and discussed to resolve discrepancies and achieve consensus on code definitions and application. This iterative process improved coding consistency and enhanced the trustworthiness of the qualitative analysis.

To ensure transparency in the selection process, the 20,889 initial records were screened through a multi-stage process based on PRISMA-P guidelines. Titles and abstracts were first reviewed for relevance to the research question. Irrelevant studies, duplicates, and those not meeting the inclusion criteria were excluded, resulting in 10,304 full-text articles assessed for eligibility. Of these, only 143 met all criteria, specifically a clear focus on climate change impacts on food supply chains in Africa (with emphasis on South Africa), relevance to at least one of the outcome themes, and methodological rigour as determined by the JBI and PRISMA checklists. While Google Scholar was included to ensure broader coverage and capture grey literature and hard-to-find peer-reviewed articles, we mitigated the risk of bias by limiting the selection to peer-reviewed journal articles only and cross-validating relevance through Scopus and Web of Science. This triangulation approach reduced over-reliance on any single database and enhanced the comprehensiveness and credibility of the final sample.

The final selection of 143 articles was based on a rigorous multi-phase screening process that combined relevance scoring and quality assessment. Articles were first screened for thematic alignment with the review objectives, focusing on the impact of climate change on various components of the food supply chain in Africa and South Africa. Studies that met the initial relevance threshold were then subjected to quality appraisal using the JBI checklist and the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Only studies that demonstrated methodological soundness, such as clearly defined research objectives, appropriate study design, valid outcome measures, and transparent data analysis, were included. This dual-layer approach ensured that the final pool of studies was both thematically relevant and of high academic quality, thereby enhancing the reliability and validity of the review findings.

The process of data analysis is outlined in the flow chart Figure 2 below.

3.6 Key themes identified from the NVivo screening process

The themes that emerged from the NVivo analysis were agricultural production, processing, distribution, retail, post-harvest handling, food safety, consumption, food waste, global food system, adaptation and mitigation/policy, and food security/livelihoods/resilience, as shown in Figure 3. These themes guided the results of this systematic review. The thematic analysis using NVivo 12 followed a systematic coding process. Initially, a coding framework was developed based on the research questions and preliminary readings of the included articles. Two independent coders applied this framework to the dataset to ensure consistency and reduce subjective bias. Inter-coder reliability was assessed through regular meetings where coding discrepancies were discussed and resolved through consensus, refining the coding scheme as necessary. This iterative process ensured that themes such as agricultural production, processing, distribution, and adaptation strategies were accurately and reliably identified, providing a robust basis for the review findings.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Themes identified from the NVivo analysis (own analysis).

3.7 Geographic location of studies

This systematic review focused on Africa, with 35 articles covering the continent and 39 articles specifically on Southern Africa. This reflects the region’s high vulnerability to climate change and its reliance on agriculture for livelihoods. This focus addresses the critical challenges posed by extreme weather events and disruptions to food systems, highlighting the socio-economic impact of climate change in a region where food security is particularly at risk. Additionally, the review included 47 articles, as seen in Figure 4, with global data, enabling comparisons to understand how Africa’s challenges align with or differ from global trends. This approach provides valuable insights for tailored policymaking and adaptation strategies in Africa while contributing to a global understanding of climate impacts on food supply chains. The selected studies primarily focused on sub-Saharan Africa, with particular emphasis on South Africa and its smallholder farming communities. This geographical concentration aligns with the objectives of the review and is reflected in both the inclusion criteria and the results, ensuring contextual relevance to the study’s focus on climate change impacts within African food systems.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Geographic location of papers used in the study.

4 Results

The systematic review recognised several key findings that emerged from the literature on how climate change affects the food supply chains in South Africa and Africa. It also identified key factors impacting the livelihoods and food security of smallholder farmers and consumers in the food supply chain. Insight into policy recommendations was also recorded to address the issues that climate change imposes on the food supply chain. The Results section outlines the findings from the literature used in this review.

4.1 To understand the impact of climate change on the food supply chain holistically

This objective focuses on examining the full spectrum of climate change effects on the food supply chain, encompassing all stages from agricultural production, storage, and processing to transportation, retail, and consumption. It seeks to identify how changes in temperature, rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events influence each component of the chain, with particular attention to vulnerabilities in rural and under-resourced contexts. The goal is to gain a comprehensive understanding of the interconnectedness and cumulative stressors within the supply chain. This review examined the multifaceted impacts of climate change across all stages of the food supply chain, from agricultural production to consumption, highlighting interconnected vulnerabilities and adaptation responses. Agricultural production emerged as the most extensively studied sector, with 31 articles reporting significant yield reductions in rain-fed agriculture across Africa and South Africa, estimated at around 50% between 2000 and 2020 (Challinor et al., 2007; Brown et al., 2009). These impacts were particularly severe for staple crops in drought-prone regions, emphasising the heightened vulnerability of rain-fed smallholder systems compared to irrigated or commercial farms (Castro et al., 2016; Mkuhlani et al., 2022). Water scarcity and ecosystem degradation further exacerbate production challenges, intensifying food insecurity (Gbetibouo et al., 2010; Ribeiro and Rodriguez, 2020).

Adaptation and mitigation strategies, discussed in 37 studies, varied significantly by region and crop type. In Southern Africa, smallholder farmers commonly employed diversification of crops, drought-resistant varieties, and adjusted planting calendars to cope with shifting rainfall patterns (Mthembu and Hlophe, 2021; Bijani et al., 2020). Conversely, in West African contexts, some studies highlighted reliance on traditional knowledge and community-based resource management, reflecting localised adaptive capacity differences (Rurinda et al., 2015). Policy interventions supporting climate-smart agriculture and infrastructure improvements were identified as critical enablers of effective adaptation, particularly where institutional support was strong (Brown et al., 2009; Mthembu and Hlophe, 2021). Beyond production, climate change-induced disruptions in distribution and retail were reported in 13 studies, with increased frequency of extreme weather events damaging transport networks and storage facilities (Dasaklis and Pappis, 2013; Odimegwu, 2022). The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated these vulnerabilities by triggering food shortages and price volatility, disproportionately affecting urban and peri-urban consumers (Khan et al., 2020; Mishra et al., 2021). These disruptions illustrate the compounded risks that climate change and other systemic shocks pose to supply chain resilience. Consumption-level impacts, addressed in nine studies, revealed decreased food availability and affordability, resulting from yield losses and supply chain delays (Ronquest-Ross et al., 2015; Amoah and Simatele, 2021). These effects disproportionately impacted vulnerable populations in rural and low-income urban areas, underlining the social dimensions of climate-induced food insecurity (Tshikovhi and Wyk, 2021). Similarly, food safety concerns intensified as climate change increased the prevalence of foodborne pathogens and contamination risks, affecting consumer confidence and health outcomes (King et al., 2017; Lake and Barker, 2018; Kwame et al., 2022; Mazi et al., 2023). Additional sectors such as processing, post-harvest handling, and food waste also experienced climate-related stressors. For instance, floods and temperature extremes damaged processing and storage infrastructure, causing bottlenecks and price hikes (Paloviita and Järvelä, 2019; Amicarelli and Bux, 2020; Machate, 2020; Meyer, 2020). Post-harvest losses and food waste increased due to reduced shelf life and handling delays, with implications for food availability and environmental sustainability (Simba et al., 2017; Oelofse et al., 2018; Angula et al., 2022). These findings underscore the importance of integrated supply chain approaches to comprehensively address climate vulnerabilities.

While Figure 5 highlights the distribution of articles across key themes, notable gaps emerge in areas such as food safety, which is underrepresented despite its critical importance. This scarcity may be due to limited research focus on the intersection of climate change and food safety in Africa and South Africa, possibly reflecting challenges in data availability, funding priorities, or the complexity of linking climate impacts directly to foodborne illnesses. The underrepresentation suggests an important research gap, emphasising the need for future studies to explore how climate-driven changes in pathogen prevalence, contamination risks, and food handling practices affect consumer health and confidence. Addressing this gap is vital for developing comprehensive climate adaptation strategies that encompass the entire food supply chain, including food safety considerations.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Key themes on how climate change impacts the food supply chain.

4.2 To understand the impact of climate change on the livelihoods and food security of smallholder farmers and consumers

This objective explores how climate variability affects both the economic wellbeing and food access of smallholder farmers who often rely on rain-fed agriculture and the communities they serve. It examines key issues such as income instability, crop failure, food affordability, and nutritional outcomes, particularly in vulnerable populations. The intent is to assess how these challenges contribute to broader concerns of poverty, inequality, and social exclusion in rural and peri-urban settings.

The review concluded that small-scale farmers in Africa, particularly those in South Africa, are a major part of the food supply chain and disproportionately vulnerable to the effects of climate change. This also affects the livelihoods of consumers. The effects of climate change on the livelihood and food security of smallholder farmers and consumers are shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Impacts of climate change on the livelihoods and food security of smallholder farmers that emerged from the review.

As illustrated in Figure 6, the findings from the literature review highlight that the farming sector, particularly smallholder vegetable farming, which marks the start of the food supply chain, is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. These vulnerabilities are especially pronounced among farmers from marginalised communities, whose limited access to resources undermines their adaptive capacity (Ncube et al., 2016; Hank et al., 2019). Smallholder vegetable farmers are at heightened risk of exposure to climate variability due to their dependence on natural rainfall and their constrained access to irrigation systems, climate-smart technologies, and extension services (Ghadge et al., 2019; Oluoko-Odingo and Ayiemba, 2020; Patrick et al., 2021). In both South Africa and the broader African context, barriers such as inadequate water access, financial exclusion, insecure land tenure, and limited technical expertise further intensify their exposure to climate shocks (Bigliardi and Filippelli, 2022; Manoj et al., 2023).

The cascading effects of climate change were found to negatively impact not only vegetable producers but also consumers, with significant implications for both food security and the economy. For instance, unpredictable weather patterns and reduced crop yields, common in vegetable farming, have been linked to increased market volatility and disruptions in supply chains (Assan, 2022; Farooq et al., 2022; Hedlund et al., 2022). Declines in agricultural productivity ultimately lead to reduced availability of vegetables, rising food prices, and diminished household food access, particularly in rural and low-income urban communities (Vermeulen et al., 2012; Berhanu and Wolde, 2019; Manoj et al., 2023).

Financial instability, driven by reduced and unreliable yields, further undermines smallholder vegetable farmers’ resilience and sustainability within the food system (Tumwesigye et al., 2019; Schilling et al., 2020; Bezares et al., 2021). These impacts increase the likelihood of food unaffordability and hunger, particularly among vulnerable populations (Oelofse and Nahman, 2012; Hendriks and Olivier, 2015; Akil and Ahmad, 2023). Figure 6 also illustrates the broader social and livelihood implications of climate-induced supply chain disruptions. Smallholder vegetable farmers, who often lack viable alternative income streams, face heightened livelihood insecurity due to the centrality of agriculture in household economies (Musango and Peter, 2007; Averbeke and Khosa, 2018; Dinesh et al., 2021; Mthembu and Hlophe, 2021).

Moreover, the persistence of climate shocks without adequate adaptation responses is projected to exacerbate rural poverty and deepen food insecurity (Sithole, 2019; Olabanji et al., 2020; Afokpe et al., 2022). The limited supply of fresh produce, like vegetables, elevates food prices and places an additional burden on already vulnerable communities (Masipa, 2017; Chersich and Wright, 2019; Teressa, 2021; Guo, 2023). Without timely and targeted interventions, climate change will continue to erode the resilience of both producers and consumers, worsening national food security indicators and impeding progress towards climate-resilient agricultural systems (Singh et al., 2014; Myers et al., 2017; Mohtar and Fares, 2022; Guo, 2023).

The literature reveals clear trends and critical gaps in understanding the full extent of climate change impacts on smallholder vegetable farming and the broader food supply chain. While many studies document the heightened vulnerability of smallholder farmers due to limited resources and exposure to climate variability, there is comparatively less research on effective, context-specific adaptation strategies that can mitigate these risks, especially in marginalised rural communities. Additionally, the cascading effects of climate shocks on market stability, food prices, and consumer access remain underexplored, limiting comprehensive policy responses.

These gaps have significant implications: without addressing barriers such as inadequate water access, financial exclusion, and lack of technical support, the resilience of smallholder farmers will continue to decline, deepening food insecurity and livelihood instability. The insufficient focus on post-production stages and supply chain linkages restricts understanding of systemic vulnerabilities, which is crucial for designing holistic climate-resilient food systems. Consequently, bridging these research gaps is essential for developing targeted interventions that safeguard both producer livelihoods and consumer food security, particularly in vulnerable African contexts where the socio-economic repercussions of climate change are most severe. To find ways to adapt and mitigate these impacts on smallholder farmers and the entire food supply chain to make them resilient, as well as to understand the policy recommendations. This objective seeks to identify practical strategies that smallholder farmers and stakeholders along the food supply chain can adopt to reduce their vulnerability to climate change. It evaluates existing and potential adaptation techniques (such as climate-smart agriculture) and mitigation efforts (like emissions reduction and sustainable land use), alongside an analysis of national and international policy frameworks. The aim is to recommend targeted, evidence-based interventions that enhance resilience and promote long-term sustainability in food systems.

The studies identified in the review presented a diverse range of adaptation and mitigation strategies in response to climate change globally, as illustrated in Figure 7. This figure quantifies the number of articles that discussed each strategy, revealing a concentration of scholarly attention in specific areas. Notably, climate-smart agricultural practices were the most frequently cited (seven articles), followed by agricultural transformation and sustainable land use (six articles). Other commonly discussed strategies include strengthening the supply chain, public health and livelihoods, and infrastructure resilience, each cited in four articles (Mugambiwa and Tirivangasi, 2017; Suebsombut et al., 2017; Molieleng et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022).

Figure 7

Figure 7. Adaptation and mitigation measures that emerged from the review.

These strategies vary in focus and scale, ranging from production-level interventions to system-wide transformations. For instance, climate-smart agriculture encompasses innovations in farming techniques, while supply chain strengthening and public health considerations reflect broader structural and socio-economic dimensions. Additional strategies mentioned include resilience in food systems, water management, improved waste management, and post-harvest handling improvements (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012; Klausbruckner et al., 2016; Baninla et al., 2022; Mwadzingeni et al., 2022).

Figure 7 offers a useful visual summary, but it is important to note that the strategies are not mutually exclusive and often intersect in practice. Although presented as distinct categories, many of these approaches are complementary and best understood as part of an integrated adaptation framework. For example, investments in infrastructure resilience may simultaneously enhance post-harvest handling and food system stability. The inclusion of examples from the South African context, such as community-led sustainable land use or regional climate-smart initiatives, would further strengthen the connection between the strategies reviewed and the empirical context of this study.

The systematic review reveals a diverse array of climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies aimed at reducing vulnerabilities within the food supply chain, particularly for smallholder farmers. Thematic analysis highlights a predominant focus on climate-smart agriculture, which integrates innovative farming practices to enhance productivity and resilience under changing climatic conditions (Suebsombut et al., 2017; Molieleng et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022). Closely related are strategies centred on sustainable land use and agricultural transformation, reflecting an emphasis on resource-efficient and ecologically sound production methods (Ramirez-Villegas et al., 2012; Klausbruckner et al., 2016; Baninla et al., 2022). Complementary approaches such as supply chain strengthening, infrastructure resilience, and public health measures illustrate an expanding recognition of systemic and socio-economic factors influencing food system stability (Musvoto et al., 2015; Mwadzingeni et al., 2022; Hecht and Neff, 2019).

Despite this breadth, several critical gaps emerge. Notably, the literature shows limited geographical specificity, with relatively few studies contextualising these strategies within South Africa or similar African smallholder settings, where resource constraints and institutional challenges differ markedly from global contexts (Kaudia et al., 2022). Moreover, integration of policy frameworks with on-the-ground adaptation practices is underexplored, weakening the translation of evidence into actionable interventions (Brouder and Gomez-Macpherson, 2014). The relatively sparse attention to post-harvest handling and waste management within adaptation discourse further suggests a need for more holistic approaches encompassing the entire supply chain beyond production (Nelson et al., 2016; Baninla et al., 2022; Gerken and Morrison, 2022). These trends imply that while considerable progress has been made in identifying viable climate-resilient agricultural practices, there remains an urgent need for context-specific, multi-scalar adaptation pathways that combine technological innovation with enabling institutional and policy environments. Strengthening linkages between policy design, farmer capacity building, and infrastructure investment will be crucial to enhancing food system resilience and sustainability in climate-sensitive regions such as rural KwaZulu-Natal (Suebsombut et al., 2017; Molieleng et al., 2021; Kaudia et al., 2022).

Overall, this review underscores the need for multifaceted, context-sensitive adaptation pathways that integrate agricultural innovation, institutional support, and policy reform to enhance the resilience of food systems in climate-vulnerable regions (Gregory et al., 2005; Brouder and Gomez-Macpherson, 2014; Hecht and Neff, 2019; Kaudia et al., 2022).

4.3 Policy recommendations

The reviewed literature highlights a wide range of policy recommendations essential for strengthening the resilience of smallholder vegetable farming systems in South Africa and the broader African context, where these farmers are critical to food production yet remain highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. As illustrated in Figure 8, two dominant policy themes emerged prominently: enhancing climate information systems and increasing targeted support for smallholder farmers. Improving climate information systems requires more than generic weather forecasts; it demands localised, timely, and accessible climate services tailored to South Africa’s and the broader African context’s diverse agro-ecological zones and cropping calendars. This specificity is vital for smallholder vegetable farmers, who rely heavily on natural rainfall and face narrow planting windows, to make informed decisions regarding sowing, irrigation, and harvesting (Lengnick et al., 2015; Burnham and Ma, 2016; Chandra et al., 2018). Policy must therefore support the development and dissemination of climate advisories through multiple channels, including mobile platforms and community extension networks, ensuring inclusion of marginalised farmers with limited access to technology.

Figure 8

Figure 8. Policy recommendations from the reviewed articles.

Figure 8 also quantitatively summarises the frequency of key adaptation and mitigation strategies discussed in the literature, revealing a concentration of research attention on climate-smart agricultural practices and sustainable land use, with 7 and 6 articles, respectively, focusing on these areas. Other important but less emphasised strategies include strengthening supply chains, infrastructure resilience, public health and livelihoods, as well as waste management and food safety measures. This distribution points to existing gaps in policy and research, particularly around underrepresented areas such as food safety and greenhouse gas emissions reduction. South Africa-specific policy responses should therefore broaden focus beyond production-level adaptation to incorporate systemic resilience across the supply chain, including post-harvest handling, food safety regulations, and waste management initiatives (Duchenne-Moutien and Neetoo, 2021; Molieleng et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2022; Mehmood et al., 2022; Osei et al., 2023). Institutional support frameworks should expand to provide climate-resilient inputs, decentralised extension services, and investment in infrastructure such as irrigation and cold storage, tailored to smallholder contexts (Thow et al., 2018; Chakwizira, 2019; Wyk, 2022; Zinyengere et al., 2013). Moreover, fostering public-private partnerships and regional cooperation will be vital to enhancing market access, supply chain stability, and trade resilience, ensuring food affordability and availability in a changing climate (Ayanlade et al., 2022; Lee and Gambiza, 2022; Murken and Gornott, 2022). Collectively, these targeted and integrated policy measures, informed by the thematic patterns illustrated in Figure 8, provide a strategic pathway to build the adaptive capacity of South African smallholder vegetable farmers and strengthen national food security in the face of climate challenges.

In summary, research on improved data collection systems and climate adaptation has been emphasised for better decision-making. The policy recommendations of the reviewed studies provide an inclusive framework to ensure sustainability across the food supply chain.

5 Discussion

This systematic review examined various dimensions of the existing literature on the impact of climate change on food supply chains, with a particular focus on South Africa and the broader African context. Key challenges identified include rising temperatures, more frequent extreme weather events, and smallholder farmers’ reliance on rain-fed agriculture, all compounded by limited resources and financial constraints (Kazembe et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2020; Daniell and Tonder, 2023). These factors exacerbate food insecurity by driving up food prices through reduced crop yields, highlighting an urgent need to adjust both production and consumption patterns (Terdoo and Feola, 2016; Odimegwu, 2022; Manoj et al., 2023).

External shocks, such as the Russian invasion of Ukraine, further strain global food supply chains and exacerbate nutritional challenges across Africa (Jayathilakan et al., 2018; Hatab, 2022; Sánchez et al., 2022). These challenges are especially pressing for vegetable farming, which is highly sensitive to changes in weather patterns, pest outbreaks, and water availability, issues particularly relevant to the smallholder vegetable farmers in rural KwaZulu-Natal.

The review underscores the critical importance of building sustainable food supply chains that are resilient to these disruptions (Parry et al., 2005; Dasaklis and Pappis, 2013; Pittelkow et al., 2015; Paloviita and Järvelä, 2019). Notably, climate change impacts all segments of the food supply chain, from production to post-harvest handling and consumption (Vermeulen et al., 2012; Rathgens et al., 2020). This is also evidenced in Saudi Arabia and other regions, where climate change has reduced crop viability (Rahman et al., 2022a, 2022b). In South Africa, this has had significant implications for key vegetable crops such as tomatoes, spinach, and cabbage.

Climatic stressors such as shifting rainfall patterns, increased temperatures, and pest invasions like the fall armyworm have had detrimental effects on vegetable yields, directly threatening food security (Nhemachena and Hassan, 2007; Amelework et al., 2021). Vegetables, being more perishable and water-intensive, are particularly vulnerable to these disruptions, underscoring the need for targeted interventions.

In addition to environmental factors, systemic issues such as limited technological access, poor infrastructure, and volatile markets also disrupt vegetable production cycles and weaken the food supply chain (Rurinda et al., 2015; Scherer and Verburg, 2017; Mkuhlani et al., 2022; Ruwanza et al., 2022). These limitations are particularly severe for smallholder vegetable producers who lack the institutional support and capital to adapt effectively (Müller et al., 2011; Blanc, 2012; Berti and Mulligan, 2016). The review highlights that informal markets and local food systems play a crucial role in buffering climate shocks, particularly for smallholder farmers. These systems offer flexible, low-barrier platforms for trade, provide alternative income sources, and ensure continued food access when formal supply chains are disrupted (Amelework et al., 2021; Zia et al., 2022). By supporting localised adaptation and reducing dependence on centralised markets, informal food systems contribute significantly to community resilience in the face of climate-related disruptions.

Climate-smart agricultural practices emerged in literature as key policy solutions for strengthening resilience. These include crop diversification, pest-resistant varieties, and efficient irrigation methods (Tirivangasi, 2018; Mensah et al., 2021; Vignola et al., 2022). In the context of South Africa, the promotion of climate-resilient vegetables, such as amaranth and Swiss chard, alongside improved water use technologies, could significantly enhance smallholder adaptability (Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007; Tubiello et al., 2007; Willett, 2021; Pereira and Hawkes, 2022; Oduniyi and Sylvia, 2019).

Technological interventions and government support, including training and incentives for farmers, are crucial in enabling widespread adoption of such practices (Ziervogel et al., 2014; Ncube et al., 2016; Dardonville et al., 2020). These interventions must be context-specific, considering the unique challenges faced by rural vegetable farmers.

Moreover, climate change also intensifies post-harvest losses, especially in perishable crops like vegetables. Disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, such as transport and storage failures, have further exposed these weaknesses (Mendelsohn, 2009; Paganini et al., 2020; Atwoli et al., 2022; Omoruyi et al., 2022). This reinforces the importance of investing in cold chain infrastructure and market access for vegetable producers.

The literature also highlights rising food prices, shifts in consumer preferences, and reduced access to nutritious foods as broader consequences of climate disruptions (Parfitt et al., 2010; Umar, 2023). In vegetable farming, these challenges threaten both producer livelihoods and consumer health, particularly among low-income populations. The review identified notable differences between low-income and middle-income countries regarding vulnerability and resilience to climate change. Low-income countries generally exhibited higher vulnerability due to weaker institutional capacity, limited infrastructure, and fewer adaptation resources (Porter et al., 2016; Umar, 2023). In contrast, middle-income countries such as South Africa demonstrated relatively greater resilience, though significant vulnerabilities persist, particularly among marginalised smallholder farming communities (Parfitt et al., 2010). These distinctions help contextualise the findings within broader socio-economic frameworks.

Temporal trends observed across the reviewed studies from 1993 to 2023 reveal a shift in focus from primarily assessing the impacts of climate change to emphasising adaptation strategies and resilience-building, particularly within smallholder food supply chains. While earlier research centred on documenting climate-related vulnerabilities, more recent studies increasingly highlight practical adaptation interventions and the integration of policy frameworks. This evolution reflects a growing urgency to implement actionable solutions in response to climate threats, as detailed in the results section.

To address the vulnerabilities identified in the vegetable supply chain, especially within the South African context, several targeted policy interventions are warranted. The reviewed literature consistently highlights the importance of strengthening food governance, developing post-harvest technologies, and improving waste management systems, key areas for mitigating the impacts of perishability and spoilage, which disproportionately affect smallholder vegetable farmers (Conway et al., 2015; Ahenkan, 2019; Grote et al., 2021; Dunjana et al., 2022).

Improved food governance is essential and aligns with South Africa’s National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (NCCAS, 2020), which emphasises coordinated institutional action and inclusive governance to enhance resilience across agricultural value chains. Strengthening policy implementation across government tiers can empower smallholder farmers by improving their access to resources, climate information, and decision-making platforms.

Investment in post-harvest technologies is also critical, as recommended in the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Strategic Plan 2020–2025 (DAFF, 2020). Introducing innovations such as cold storage, improved packaging, and value-added processing can significantly reduce post-harvest losses, extend shelf life, and improve market opportunities, particularly for resource-constrained smallholders.

Effective waste management is another priority area and is supported by South Africa’s National Waste Management Strategy (DEA, 2019), which promotes circular economy principles. Improved recycling systems, composting of organic waste, and resource recovery within the vegetable supply chain can reduce environmental degradation while generating additional income streams for rural producers.

Furthermore, promoting sustainable production practices and reducing dependency on costly external inputs aligns with the objectives of the National Development Plan 2030 (NPC, 2012) and the Integrated Resource Plan (Republic of South Africa, 2019). Support for agroecological methods, organic inputs, and water-efficient irrigation technologies can enhance smallholder resilience by improving soil health, reducing climate vulnerability, and fostering long-term sustainability.

These policy-aligned recommendations present a coherent framework for addressing structural and climate-induced challenges in the vegetable supply chain. Their effective implementation is vital to safeguarding smallholder livelihoods and enhancing food security in rural South African communities. Finally, while much of the reviewed literature uses broad terms such as “agriculture” or “smallholder farming,” it is evident that the vegetable sub-sector faces unique vulnerabilities. Addressing this literature gap by highlighting the underrepresentation of vegetable-specific insights helps clarify the focus of this study and reinforces the need for tailored adaptation strategies for smallholder vegetable farmers in South Africa (Hendriks and Olivier, 2015; Masipa, 2017; Kochan and Nowicki, 2018; Reza and Sabau, 2022).

To operationalise these policy recommendations, it is essential to prioritise context-specific, actionable interventions. For instance, expanding climate-smart agriculture (CSA) training programmes in KwaZulu-Natal can provide smallholder farmers with adaptive techniques for managing climate risks, improving water efficiency, and enhancing soil health (FAO, 2013). Establishing decentralised post-harvest handling hubs and improving local market infrastructure can also directly reduce losses, increase shelf life, and stabilise farmer incomes (DAFF, 2020; Romero-Perdomo et al., 2022). These localised, implementable steps are vital for translating national policy frameworks into practical benefits for smallholder farmers and enhancing food system resilience in vulnerable regions.

While the proposed interventions such as climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offer significant potential for enhancing resilience in smallholder vegetable systems, their feasibility remains constrained by several contextual challenges. Key barriers include limited access to finance, high upfront costs of adopting CSA technologies, and knowledge gaps among farmers regarding climate-resilient practices (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2008; Kaptymer et al., 2019; Umar, 2023). Additionally, resistance to change due to entrenched farming traditions, mistrust of new technologies, and lack of institutional support can further hinder uptake (FAO, 2013). For CSA and related solutions to be viable, targeted support is required, including the provision of subsidies or credit schemes for low-income farmers, integration of CSA modules into existing agricultural extension programmes, and the establishment of farmer field schools to encourage peer-to-peer learning (FAO, 2013). Strengthening multi-stakeholder collaboration between government, NGOs, and the private sector is also critical to building trust and ensuring that interventions are culturally appropriate and economically accessible. Without addressing these systemic barriers, the implementation of climate adaptation strategies will remain uneven and limited in impact.

South Africa’s high levels of economic inequality exacerbate the impacts of climate change more severely than in many neighbouring countries. While nations such as Botswana and Namibia also face climate-related agricultural challenges, their smaller populations and relatively more equitable access to resources often result in more coordinated responses (Khee et al., 2014; World Bank, 2021). In contrast, South Africa’s deeply entrenched socio-economic disparities limit the adaptive capacity of marginalised groups, particularly smallholder farmers who lack access to land, credit, and technical support (Ziervogel et al., 2014; Shisanya and Mafongoya, 2017; Semenya, 2023). This uneven vulnerability underscores the need for climate adaptation policies that are not only technically sound but also socially inclusive.

6 Conclusion

This systematic review set out to investigate the multifaceted impacts of climate change on the food supply chain in South Africa and the broader African region. The review specifically examined the nature of climate-induced challenges, their effects on both producers, especially smallholder vegetable farmers, and consumers, as well as the adaptation and mitigation strategies proposed or implemented in the literature. It also considered policy recommendations aimed at strengthening food system resilience.

Findings reveal that climate change disrupts every stage of the food supply chain, from production and processing to distribution and consumption, through extreme weather events, temperature changes, pest invasions, and erratic rainfall patterns. These disruptions result in crop damage and shortages, driving up food prices and undermining both the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and the food security of vulnerable populations.

While the review identified numerous policy and technical strategies, such as climate-smart agriculture, improved infrastructure, and post-harvest technologies, it also exposed significant gaps. Most notable is the limited focus on vegetable-specific farming systems and the lack of targeted, coordinated support for smallholder farmers. Additionally, few studies explicitly address post-harvest losses in South Africa, despite their critical impact on supply chain efficiency and farmer incomes. The absence of integration across sectors like agriculture, water, energy, and food safety was also found to hinder effective resilience-building. The need for equitable resource allocation and knowledge-sharing across developing countries, including South Africa, remains critical.

To further strengthen the resilence of the food supply chain especially for vegetable producers, more research is needed into the roles that market systems, gender dynamics, and local governance structures play in shaping adaptive capacity. Longitudinal studies on climate-smart agriculture adoption and its socio-economic impacts would provide valuable insights into the sustainability of adaptation strategies over time. These areas remain underexplored yet hold significant potential for informing more context-specific and inclusive climate responses.

By systematically identifying both established knowledge and critical gaps, this review lays the groundwork for future research on climate change impacts in South Africa’s vegetable supply chains. The findings highlight areas requiring further empirical investigation, including post-harvest losses, market dynamics, gender influences, and governance factors that affect smallholder adaptation. This focused synthesis provides a clearer understanding of the challenges and opportunities for building resilience, informing policymakers and researchers aiming to develop more targeted and effective climate adaptation strategies.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Author contributions

MN: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. DN: Writing – review & editing. RS: Writing – review & editing. MSCN: Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This research was funded by the Sustainable and Healthy Food Systems – Southern Africa (SHEFS-SA) Project and supported by the Wellcome Trust’s Climate and Health Programme (grant no. 227749/Z/23/Z). For open access, the author has applied a CC BY public copyright license to any author accepted manuscript version arising from this submission.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the editors and referees who assisted the researchers in rewriting the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2025.1604839/full#supplementary-material

References

Afokpe, P., Phiri, A., Lamore, A., Toure, H., Traore, R., and Kipkogei, O. (2022). Progress in climate change adaptation and mitigation actions in sub-Saharan Africa farming systems. Cah. Agric. 31:4. doi: 10.1051/cagri/2021037

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ahenkan, A. (2019). Financing climate change mitigation: an assessment of the private sector investment opportunities in Ghana. Bus. Strateg. Dev. 3, 143–150. doi: 10.1002/bsd2.84

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Akil, L., and Ahmad, H. (2023). Socioeconomic impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on foodborne illnesses in the United States. Eur. J. Environ. Public Health 7:0128. doi: 10.29333/ejeph/12585

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Amelework, A., Bairu, M., Maema, O., Venter, S., and Laing, M. (2021). Adoption and promotion of resilient crops for climate risk mitigation and import substitution: a case analysis of cassava for south African agriculture. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5:617783. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.617783

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Amicarelli, V., and Bux, C. (2020). Food waste measurement toward a fair, healthy and environmental-friendly food system: a critical review. Br. Food J. 123, 2907–2935. doi: 10.1108/BFJ-07-2020-0658

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Amoah, L., and Simatele, M. (2021). Food security and coping strategies of rural household livelihoods to climate change in the eastern cape of South Africa. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 5:692185. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.692185

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Angula, S., Mofokeng, T., Ikumi, D., and Basitere, M. (2022). Potential co-disposal of food waste and sewage sludge in South Africa: a review. Preprinters. 1–15.

Google Scholar

Arksey, H., and O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol. 8, 9–32. doi: 10.1080/1364557032000119616

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Assan, N. (2022). It’s time for reimagining the future of food security in sub–Saharan Africa: gender-smallholder agriculture-climate change nexus. Trends J. Sci. Res. 1, 76–85. doi: 10.31586/ujfs.2022.504

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Atwoli, L., Muhia, J., and Merali, Z. (2022). Mental health and climate change in Africa. BJPsych Int. 19, 86–89. doi: 10.1192/bji.2022.14

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Aung, M. M., and Chang, Y. S. (2014). Traceability in a food supply chain: safety and quality perspectives. Food Control 39, 172–184. doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.11.007

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Averbeke, W., and Khosa, T. (2018). The contribution of smallholder agriculture to the nutrition of rural households in a semi-arid environment in South Africa. Water SA 33:413. doi: 10.4314/wsa.v33i3.49158

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Awan, S., Ahmed, S., Ullah, F., Nawaz, A., Khan, A., Uddin, M. I., et al. (2021). IoT with blockchain: a futuristic approach in agriculture and food supply chain. Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput. 2:5. doi: 10.1155/2021/5580179

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ayanlade, A., Oluwaranti, A., Ayanlade, O. S., Borderon, M., Sterly, H., Sakdapolrak, P., et al. (2022). Extreme climate events in sub-Saharan Africa: a call for improving agricultural technology transfer to enhance adaptive capacity. Clim. Serv. 27:100311. doi: 10.1016/j.cliser.2022.100311

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Baninla, Y., Sharifi, A., Allam, Z., Paul, S., Gangtar, N., and George, N. (2022). An overview of climate change adaptation and mitigation research in Africa. Front. Clim. 4:976427. doi: 10.3389/fclim.2022.976427

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Berhanu, M., and Wolde, A. (2019). Review on climate change impacts and its adaptation strategies on food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Agric. Soc. Econ. J. 19, 145–154. doi: 10.21776/ub.agrise.2019.019.3.3

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Berti, G., and Mulligan, C. (2016). Competitiveness of small farms and innovative food supply chains: the role of food hubs in creating sustainable regional and local food systems. Sustainability 8:616. doi: 10.3390/su8070616

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bezares, A. N., Fretes, G., and Martinez, E. M. (2021). The role of food and beverage companies in transforming food systems: building resilience at multiple scales. Curr. Dev. Nutr. 5:110. doi: 10.1093/cdn/nzab110

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bigliardi, B., and Filippelli, S. (2022). A review of the literature on innovation in the agro-food industry: sustainability, smartness and health. Eur. J. Innov. Manag. 25, 589–611. doi: 10.1108/EJIM-05-2021-0258

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Bijani, M., Hayati, D., Azadi, H., Tanaskovik, V., and Witlox, F. (2020). Causes and consequences of the conflict among agricultural water beneficiaries in Iran. Sustainability 12:6630. doi: 10.3390/su12166630

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Blanc, E. (2012). The impact of climate change on crop yields in sub-Saharan Africa. Am. J. Clim. Change 1, 1–13. doi: 10.4236/ajcc.2012.11001

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Brouder, S. M., and Gomez-Macpherson, H. (2014). The impact of conservation agriculture on smallholder agricultural yields: a scoping review of the evidence. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 187, 11–32. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2013.08.010

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Brown, M., Hintermann, B., and Higgins, N. (2009). Markets, climate change, and food security in West Africa. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 8016–8020. doi: 10.1021/es901162d

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Burnham, M., and Ma, Z. (2016). Linking smallholder farmer climate change adaptation decisions to development. Clim. Dev. 8, 289–311. doi: 10.1080/17565529.2015.1067180

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Castro, A. A., Vaughn, C. C., Julian, J. P., and García-Llorente, M. (2016). Social demand for ecosystem services and implications for watershed management. JAWRA 52, 209–221. doi: 10.1111/1752-1688.12379

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Chakwizira, J. (2019). Rural transport and climate change in South Africa: converting constraints into rural transport adaptation opportunities. Jàmbá J. Disaster Risk Stu. 11:718. doi: 10.4102/jamba.v11i3.718

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Challinor, A., Wheeler, T., Garforth, C., Craufurd, P., and Kassam, A. (2007). Assessing the vulnerability of food crop systems in Africa to climate change. Clim. Chang. 83, 381–399. doi: 10.1007/s10584-007-9249-0

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Chambers, R., and Conway, G. (1992). Sustainable rural livelihoods: Practical concepts for the 21st century. IDS Discussion Paper 296. Brighton: IDS. 1–33.

Google Scholar

Chandra, A., Mcnamara, K. E., and Dargusch, P. (2018). Climate-smart agriculture: perspectives and framings. Clim. Pol. 18, 526–541. doi: 10.1080/14693062.2017.1316968

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Chen, J., Zhong, F., and Sun, D. (2022). Lessons from farmers’ adaptive practices to climate change in China: a systematic literature review. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29, 81183–81197. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-23449-z

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Chersich, M., and Wright, C. (2019). Climate change adaptation in South Africa: a case study on the role of the health sector. Glob. Health 15:466. doi: 10.1186/s12992-019-0466-x

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Conway, D., Archer, E., Deryng, D., Dorling, S., Krueger, T., Landman, W., et al. (2015). Climate and southern Africa’s water–energy–food nexus. Nat. Clim. Chang. 5, 837–846. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2735

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

DAFF (2020). Strategic Plan 2020–2025. Pretoria: DAFF.

Google Scholar

Daniell, A., and Tonder, D. (2023). Opportunity for increasing the soil quality of non-arable and depleted soils in South Africa: a review. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 23, 2476–2487. doi: 10.1007/s42729-023-01205-7

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Dardonville, M., Urruty, N., Bockstaller, C., and Therond, O. (2020). Influence of diversity and intensification level on vulnerability, resilience and robustness of agriculture. Agric. Syst. 184:102913. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102913

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Dasaklis, T., and Pappis, C. (2013). Supply chain management in view of climate change: an overview of possible impacts and the road ahead. J. Ind. Eng. Manag. 6, 1139–1161. doi: 10.3926/jiem.883

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

DEA (2019). National Waste Management Strategy. Pretoria: DEA.

Google Scholar

Dennis, I., and Dennis, R. (2012). Climate change vulnerability index for south African aquifers. Water SA 38, 417–426. Available online at: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC121554

Google Scholar

Dhakal, K. (2022). NVivo. J. Med. Libr. Assoc. 110, 270–272. doi: 10.5195/jmla.2022.1271

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Dinesh, D., Hegger, D. L. T., Klerkx, L., Vervoort, J., Campbell, B. M., and Driessen, P. P. J. (2021). Enacting theories of change for food systems transformation under climate change. Glob. Food Secur. 31:100583. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100583

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Duchenne-Moutien, R. A., and Neetoo, H. (2021). Climate change and emerging food safety issues: a review. J. Food Prot. 84, 1884–1897. doi: 10.4315/JFP-21-141

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Dunjana, N., Dube, E., Motsepe, M., Madikiza, S., Kgakatsi, I., and Nciizah, A. (2022). Sorghum as a household food and livelihood security crop under climate change in South Africa: a review. S. Afr. J. Sci. 118, 35–40. doi: 10.17159/sajs.2022/13340

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Fan, S., Cho, E. E., Meng, T., and Rue, C. (2021). How to prevent and cope with coincidence of risks to the global food system. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 46, 601–623.

Google Scholar

FAO (2008). An introduction to the basic concepts of food security. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Google Scholar

FAO (2013). Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. Rome: FAO.

Google Scholar

FAO (2015). The state of food insecurity in the world: Meeting the 2015 international hunger targets – Taking stock of uneven Progress. Rome: FAO.

Google Scholar

Farooq, M., Uzair, M., Raza, A., Habib, M., Xu, Y., Yousuf, M., et al. (2022). Uncovering the research gaps to alleviate the negative impacts of climate change on food security: a review. Front. Plant Sci. 13:927535. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.927535

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Garnett, T. (2011). Where are the best opportunities for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the food system (including the food chain)? Food Policy 36, S23–S32. doi: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2010.10.010

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Gbetibouo, G., Ringler, C., and Hassan, R. (2010). Vulnerability of the south African farming sector to climate change and variability: an indicator approach. Nat. Res. Forum 34, 175–187. doi: 10.1111/j.1477-8947.2010.01302.x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Gerken, A., and Morrison, W. (2022). Pest management in the postharvest agricultural supply chain under climate change. Front. Agron. 4:918845. doi: 10.3389/fagro.2022.918845

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ghadge, A., Wurtmann, H., and Seuring, S. (2019). Managing climate change risks in global supply chains: a review and research agenda. Int. J. Prod. Res. 58, 44–64. doi: 10.1080/00207543.2019.1629670

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Gregory, P., Ingram, J., and Brklacich, M. (2005). Climate change and food security. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci. 360, 2139–2148. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2005.1745

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Grote, U., Faße, A., Nguyen, T., and Erenstein, O. (2021). Food security and the dynamics of wheat and maize value chains in Africa and Asia. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 4:617009. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.617009

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Guo, X. (2023). A vicious cycle between agriculture supply chain and climate change. Highlights Bus. Econ. Manage. 5, 317–323. doi: 10.54097/hbem.v5i.5098

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Guo, D., Powrie, L., and Boyd, D. (2019). Climate change and biodiversity threats on Pachypodium species in South Africa. J. Geoscience Environ. Prot. 7, 37–44. doi: 10.4236/gep.2019.75004

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Hank, T. B., Berger, K., Bach, H., Clevers, J. G. P. W., Gitelson, A., Zarco-Tejada, P., et al. (2019). Spaceborne imaging spectroscopy for sustainable agriculture: contributions and challenges. Surv. Geophys. 40, 515–551. doi: 10.1007/s10712-018-9492-0

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Hatab, A. (2022). Africa’s food security under the shadow of the Russia-Ukraine conflict. Strateg. Rev. South. Afr. 44, 37–46. doi: 10.35293/srsa.v44i1.4083

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Hecht, A. A., and Neff, R. A. (2019). Food rescue intervention evaluations: a systematic review. Sustainability 11:718. doi: 10.3390/su11236718

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Hedlund, J., Carlsen, H., Croft, S., West, C., Bodin, Ö., Stokeld, E., et al. (2022). Impacts of climate change on global food trade networks. Environ. Res. Lett. 17:124040. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aca68b

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Hendriks, S., and Olivier, N. (2015). Review of the south African agricultural legislative framework: food security implications. Dev. South. Afr. 32, 555–576. doi: 10.1080/0376835X.2015.1044075

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

HLPE (2013). Investing in smallholder agriculture for food security. A report by the high level panel of experts on food security and nutrition. Rome: FAO.

Google Scholar

IPCC (2021). Climate change 2021: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Rome: IPCC.

Google Scholar

IPCC (2022). Climate change 2022: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Working group II contribution to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Geneva: IPCC.

Google Scholar

Ivanov, D., Dolgui, A., Sokolov, B., Ivanova, M., and Potryasaev, S. (2017). Disruption-driven supply chain dynamics: a ripple effect modeling approach and case study. Transp. Res. Part E Logist. Transp. Rev. 90, 405–420. doi: 10.1080/00207543.2016.1275873

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Jayathilakan, K., Ahirwar, R., and Pandey, M. C. (2018). Bioactive compounds and milk peptides for human health-a review. Novel Techniques Nutr. Food Sci. 1, 116–122. doi: 10.31031/NTNF.2018.01.000525

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kaptymer, B., Ute, J., and Hule, M. (2019). Climate-smart agriculture and its implementation challenges in Africa. Curr. J. Appl. Sci. Technol. 22, 1–13. doi: 10.9734/CJAST/2019/v38i430371

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kaudia, A., Sokona, Y., Mantlana, B., Mbandi, A., Osano, P., and Garland, R. (2022). The launch of the first-ever integrated assessment of air pollution and climate change for sustainable development in Africa. Clean Air J. 32:2. Available online at: http://hdl.handle.net/2263/90662

Google Scholar

Kazembe, L., Crush, J., and Wagner, J. (2020). Revisiting the African supermarket revolution: the case of Windhoek, Namibia. Dev. South. Africa 38, 230–247. doi: 10.1080/0376835X.2020.1819774

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Khan, M., Akram, M., Janke, R., Qadri, R., Al-Sadi, A., and Farooque, A. (2020). Urban horticulture for food secure cities through and beyond COVID-19. Sustainability 12:9592. doi: 10.3390/su12229592

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Khee, P., Mee, L., and Keong, C. (2014). The economic impact of climate change on food security in Malaysia. Int. J. Acad. Res. 6, 195–199. Available online at: http://www.ijar.lit.az/pdf/ijar/2014/2014(29B-29).pdf

Google Scholar

King, T., Cole, M., Farber, J. M., Eisenbrand, G., Zabaras, D., Fox, E. M., et al. (2017). Food safety for food security: relationship between global megatrends and developments in food safety. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 68, 160–175. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.014

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Klausbruckner, C., Annegarn, H., Henneman, L., and Rafaj, P. (2016). A policy review of synergies and trade-offs in south African climate change mitigation and air pollution control strategies. Environ. Sci. Pol. 57, 70–78. doi: 10.1016/j.envsci.2015.12.001

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kochan, C. G., and Nowicki, D. R. (2018). Supply chain resilience: a systematic literature review and typological framework. Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logist. Manag. 48, 842–865. doi: 10.1108/IJPDLM-02-2017-0099

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumar, V., and Patel, P. K. (2025). Assessment of present air quality in Lucknow city and its impact on human health. J. Air Pollution nd Health 10, 115–135. doi: 10.18502/japh.v10i1.18098

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumari, S., and Agarwal, S. (2025). A comprehensive review of remote sensing technologies for improved geological disaster management. Geol. J. 60, 223–235. doi: 10.1002/gj.5072

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumari, S., Choudhury, A., Karki, P., Sengupta, A., Nandra, A., Raju, M. P., et al. (2025). Next-generation air quality management: unveiling advanced techniques for monitoring and controlling pollution. Aerosol Sci. Eng. 19, 1–22. doi: 10.1007/s41810-024-00281-1

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Kumari, S., and Garg, M. C. (2024). Confronting the nexus of climate change: mental health, food poverty, and human well being. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 29–50.

Google Scholar

Kurukulasuriya, P., and Mendelsohn, R. O. (2008). How will climate change shift agro-ecological zones and impact African agriculture?. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, (4717). 22–31.

Google Scholar

Kwame, A., Danny, S., and Reid, M. (2022). The threats of climate change on water and food security in South Africa. Am. J. Environ. Clim. 1, 73–91.

Google Scholar

Lake, I., and Barker, G. (2018). Climate change, foodborne pathogens and illness in higher-income countries. Curr. Environ. Health Rep. 5, 187–196. doi: 10.1007/s40572-018-0189-9

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Lee, M., and Gambiza, J. (2022). The adoption of conservation agriculture by smallholder farmers in southern Africa: a scoping review of barriers and enablers. J. Rural. Stud. 92, 214–225. doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.03.031

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Lengnick, L., Miller, M., and Marten, G. G. (2015). Metropolitan foodsheds: a resilient response to the climate change challenge? J. Environ. Stud. Sci. 5, 573–592. doi: 10.1007/s13412-015-0349-2

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Luo, J., Leng, S., and Bai, Y. (2022). Food supply chain safety research trends from 1997 to 2020: a bibliometric analysis. Front. Public Health 9:742980. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.742980

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Machate, M. (2020). The conundrums of the estimated magnitude of food waste generated in South Africa. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. Plann. 15, 893–899. doi: 10.18280/ijsdp.150613

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mandvi, P., Singh, P. K., and Singh, H. K. (2024). Performance analysis of machine learning models for AQI prediction in Gorakhpur City: a critical study. Environ. Monit. Assess. 196:924. doi: 10.1007/s10661-024-13107-x

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Manoj, T., Makkithaya, K., and Narendra, V. G. (2023). A trusted IoT data sharing and secure oracle-based access for agricultural production risk management. Comput. Electron. Agric. 204:107544. doi: 10.1016/j.compag.2022.107544

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Masipa, T. (2017). The impact of climate change on food security in South Africa: current realities and challenges ahead. Jàmbá J. Disaster Risk Stud. 9, 1–7. Available online at: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-a876c549f

Google Scholar

Mazi, I., Onyeaka, H., and Nnaji, N. (2023). Foodborne pathogens in Africa: understanding Cronobacter sakazakii. Public Health Challenges 2:53. doi: 10.1002/puh2.53

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mehmood, Z., Raza, A., Ahmed, T., Irshad, M. A., and Khan, M. (2022). Agricultural post-harvest sustainability through the development of low-cost zero energy cooling chambers (ZECC) - a case study of tomatoes. J. Glob. Innov. Agric. Sci. 10, 159–164.

Google Scholar

Mendelsohn, R. (2009). The impact of climate change on agriculture in developing countries. J. Nat. Resour. Policy Res. 1, 5–19. doi: 10.1080/19390450802495882

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mensah, H., Ahadzie, D. K., Takyi, S. A., and Amponsah, O. (2021). Climate change resilience: lessons from local climate-smart agricultural practices in Ghana. Energy Ecol. Environ. 6, 271–284. doi: 10.1007/s40974-020-00181-3

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Meyer, M. A. (2020). The role of resilience in food system studies in low- and middle-income countries. Glob. Food Secur. 24:100356. doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2020.100356

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mishra, A., Bruno, E., and Zilberman, D. (2021). Compound natural and human disasters: managing drought and COVID-19 to sustain global agriculture and food sectors. Sci. Total Environ. 754:142210. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142210

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mkuhlani, S., Zinyengere, N., Kumi, N., and Crespo, O. (2022). Lessons from integrated seasonal forecast-crop modelling in Africa: a systematic review. Open Life Sci. 17, 1398–1417. doi: 10.1515/biol-2022-0507

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., et al. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst. Rev. 4, 1–9. Available online at: http://www.systematicreviewsjournal.com/content/4/1/1

Google Scholar

Mohtar, R., and Fares, A. (2022). The future of water for food. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 6:880767. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.880767

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Molieleng, L., Fourie, P., and Nwafor, I. (2021). Adoption of climate-smart agriculture by communal livestock farmers in South Africa. Sustainability 13:468. doi: 10.3390/su131810468

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mthembu, A., and Hlophe, S. (2021). Building resilience to climate change in vulnerable communities: a case study of uMkhanyakude district municipality. Town Plann. Rev. 77, 42–56. doi: 10.18820/2415-0495/trp77i1.4

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mugambiwa, S., and Tirivangasi, H. (2017). Climate change: a threat towards achieving ‘sustainable development goal number two’ (end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture) in South Africa. Jàmbá J. Disaster. Risk Stud. 9:350. doi: 10.4102/jamba.v9i1.350

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Müller, C., Crämer, W., Hare, B., and Lotze-Campen, H. (2011). Climate change risks for African agriculture. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108, 4313–4315. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1015078108

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Munn, Z., Moola, S., Lisy, K., Riitano, D., and Tufanaru, C. (2015). Methodological guidance for systematic reviews of observational epidemiological studies reporting prevalence and cumulative incidence data. JBI Evid. Implem. 13, 147–153. doi: 10.1097/XEB.0000000000000054

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Murken, L., and Gornott, C. (2022). The importance of different land tenure systems for farmers’ response to climate change: a systematic review. Clim. Risk Manag. 35:100419. doi: 10.1016/j.crm.2022.100419

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Musango, J., and Peter, C. (2007). A bayesian approach towards facilitating climate change adaptation research on the south African agricultural sector. Agrekon 46, 245–259. doi: 10.1080/03031853.2007.9523770

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Musvoto, C., Nortje, K., Wet, B., Mahumani, B., and Nahman, A. (2015). Imperatives for an agricultural green economy in South Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci. 111, 1–8. doi: 10.17159/sajs.2015/20140026

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Mwadzingeni, L., Mugandani, R., and Mafongoya, P. (2022). Risks of climate change on future water supply in smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe. Water 14:1682. doi: 10.3390/w14111682

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Myers, S., Smith, M., Guth, S., Golden, C., Vaitla, B., Mueller, N., et al. (2017). Climate change and global food systems: potential impacts on food security and undernutrition. Annu. Rev. Public Health 38, 259–277. doi: 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031816-044356

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

NCCAS (2020). South Africa’s National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Pretoria: Department of Environment, Forestry and Fisheries.

Google Scholar

Nchanji, E. B., Lutomia, C. K., Chirwa, R., Templer, N., Rubyogo, J. C., and Onyango, P. (2021). Immediate impacts of COVID-19 pandemic on bean value chain in selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Agric. Syst. 188:103034. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2020.103034

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ncube, M., Madubula, N., Ngwenya, H., Zinyengere, N., Zhou, L., Francis, J., et al. (2016). Climate change, household vulnerability and smart agriculture: the case of two south African provinces. Jàmbá J. Disaster Risk Stud. 8:182. doi: 10.4102/jamba.v8i2.182

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Nelson, M., Zak, K., Davine, T., and Pau, S. (2016). Climate change and food systems research: current trends and future directions. Geogr. Compass 10, 414–428. doi: 10.1111/gec3.12281

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Nhemachena, C., and Hassan, R. (2007). Micro-level analysis of farmers' adaptation to climate change in southern Africa. IFPRI discussion paper 00714. Rome: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

Google Scholar

NPC (2012). National development plan 2030: our future – make it work Pretoria the presidency. Pretoria: NPC.

Google Scholar

Odimegwu, F. (2022). Climate change and agriculture: analysis and implication on South Africa. Afr. Soc. Sci. Hum. J. 3, 1–19. doi: 10.57040/asshj.v3i2.141

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Oduniyi, O., and Sylvia, T. (2019). Establishing the nexus between climate change adaptation strategy and smallholder farmers’ food security status in South Africa: a bi-casual effect using instrumental variable approach. Cogent Soc. Sci. 5:1656402. doi: 10.1080/23311886.2019.1656402

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Oelofse, S., Muswema, A., and Ramukhwatho, F. (2018). Household food waste disposal in South Africa: a case study of Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni. S. Afr. J. Sci. 114:6. doi: 10.17159/sajs.2018/20170284

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Oelofse, S., and Nahman, A. (2012). Estimating the magnitude of food waste generated in South Africa. Waste Manage. Res. J. Sust. Circ. Econ. 31, 80–86. doi: 10.1177/0734242X12457117

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Olabanji, M., Ndarana, T., and Davis, N. (2020). Impact of climate change on crop production and potential adaptive measures in the Olifants catchment, South Africa. Climate 9:6. doi: 10.3390/cli9010006

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Oluoko-Odingo, A., and Ayiemba, E. (2020). Food security in the afro-China cooperation: the hanging, untapped ‘win-win’ partnership. Afr. Rev. 47, 392–418. doi: 10.1163/1821889X-12340025

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Omoruyi, O., Dakora, E., and Oluwagbemi, O. (2022). Insights into the impacts of and responses to the COVID-19 pandemic: the south African food retail supply chains perspective. J. Transp. Supply Chain Manag. 16:739.

Google Scholar

Osei, B., Kunawotor, M., and Appiah-Konadu, P. (2023). Measures for achieving a sustainable environment to mitigate climate change in Africa. Int. J. Soc. Econ. 51, 454–469. doi: 10.1108/IJSE-04-2023-0290

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Paganini, N., Adinata, K., Buthelezi, N., Harris, D., Lemke, S., Alberto, L., et al. (2020). Growing and eating food during the COVID-19 pandemic: farmers’ perspectives on local food system resilience to shocks in southern Africa and Indonesia. Sustainability 12:8556. doi: 10.3390/su12208556

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Paloviita, A., and Järvelä, M. (2019). Multilevel governance for climate change adaptation in food supply chains. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 479–496.

Google Scholar

Parfitt, J., Barthel, M., and Macnaughton, S. (2010). Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. B Biol. Sci. 365, 3065–3081. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0126

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Parry, M., Rosenzweig, C., and Livermore, M. (2005). Climate change, global food supply and risk of hunger. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. B Biol. Sci. 360, 2125–2138. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2005.1751

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Patrick, H., Khalema, E., Abiolu, O., Ijatuyi, E., and Abiolu, R. (2021). South Africa’s multiple vulnerabilities, food security and livelihood options in the COVID-19 new order: an annotation. J. Transdiscip. Res. South. Afr. 17:7. doi: 10.4102/td.v17i1.1037

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Pereira, L., and Hawkes, C. (2022). Leveraging the potential of sorghum as a healthy food and resilient crop in the south African food system. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 6:786151. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2022.786151

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Pittelkow, C. M., Linquist, B. A., Lundy, M. E., Liang, X., Van Groenigen, K. J., Lee, J., et al. (2015). When does no-till yield more? A global meta-analysis. Field Crop Res. 183, 156–168. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2015.07.020

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Porter, S., Reay, D., Higgins, P., and Bomberg, E. (2016). A half-century of production-phase greenhouse gas emissions from food loss & waste in the global food supply chain. Sci. Total Environ. 571, 721–729. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.041

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

QSR International. (2018). NVivo qualitative data analysis software (version 12). Available online at: https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-data-analysis-software/home (accessed September 28, 2023).

Google Scholar

Rahman, M. M., Akter, R., Abdul, B., Bin, J., Hasan, M. A., Rahman, M. S., et al. (2022a). Analysis of climate change impacts on the food system security of Saudi Arabia. Sustainability 14:482. doi: 10.3390/su142114482

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Rahman, M. M., Nguyen, R., and Lu, L. (2022b). Multi-level impacts of climate change and supply disruption events on a potato supply chain: an agent-based modelling approach. Agric. Syst. 201:103469. doi: 10.1016/j.agsy.2022.103469

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ramirez-Villegas, J., Salazar, M., Jarvis, A., and Navarro-Racines, C. E. (2012). A way forward on adaptation to climate change in Colombian agriculture: perspectives towards 2050. Clim. Chang. 115, 611–628. doi: 10.1007/s10584-012-0500-y

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Rasul, G. (2021). Twin challenges of COVID-19 pandemic and climate change for agriculture and food security in South Asia. Environ. Challenges 2:100027. doi: 10.1016/j.envc.2021.100027

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Rathgens, J., Gröschner, S., and Von Wehrden, H. (2020). Going beyond certificates: a systematic review of alternative trade arrangements in the global food sector. J. Clean. Prod. 276:123208. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123208

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Republic of South Africa (2019). Integrated resource plan (IRP 2019). Pretoria: Department of Mineral Resources and Energy.

Google Scholar

Reza, M. S., and Sabau, G. (2022). Impact of climate change on crop production and food security in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. J. Agric. Food Res. :10. doi: 10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100405

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ribeiro, P., and Rodriguez, A. (2020). Emerging advanced technologies to mitigate the impact of climate change in Africa. Plants 9:381. doi: 10.3390/plants9030381

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Romero-Perdomo, F., Carvajalino-Umaña, J. D., Moreno-Gallego, J. L., Ardila, N., and González-Curbelo, M. Á. (2022). Research trends on climate change and circular economy from a knowledge mapping perspective. Sustainability 14:521. doi: 10.3390/su14010521

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ronquest-Ross, L., Vink, N., and Sigge, G. (2015). Food consumption changes in South Africa since 1994. S. Afr. J. Sci. 111:12. doi: 10.17159/sajs.2015/20140354

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Rurinda, J., Wijk, M., Mapfumo, P., Descheemaeker, K., Supit, I., and Giller, K. (2015). Climate change and maize yield in southern Africa: what can farm management do? Glob. Change Biol. 21, 4588–4601. doi: 10.1111/gcb.13061

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ruwanza, S., Thondhlana, G., and Falayi, M. (2022). Research progress and conceptual insights on drought impacts and responses among smallholder farmers in South Africa: a review. Land 11:159. doi: 10.3390/land11020159

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Sánchez, A. C., Kamau, H. N., Grazioli, F., and Jones, S. K. (2022). Financial profitability of diversified farming systems: a global meta-analysis. Ecol. Econ. 201:107595. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2022.107595

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Scherer, L., and Verburg, P. H. (2017). Mapping and linking supply- and demand-side measures in climate-smart agriculture. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 37:66. doi: 10.1007/s13593-017-0475-1

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Schilling, J., Hertig, E., Tramblay, Y., and Scheffran, J. (2020). Climate change vulnerability, water resources and social implications in North Africa. Reg. Environ. Chang. 20:15. doi: 10.1007/s10113-020-01597-7

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Schmidhuber, J., and Tubiello, F. (2007). Global food security under climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 19703–19708. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0701976104

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Selçuk, A. A. (2019). A guide for systematic reviews: PRISMA. Turkish Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 57, 57–58. doi: 10.5152/tao.2019.4058

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Semenya, K. (2023). Comparative study of solid waste management in gaMothapo and Seshego in Polokwane local municipality Limpopo province, South Africa. Research Square. 1–13.

Google Scholar

Shah, T. M., Tasawwar, S., and Otterpohl, R. (2021). Agroecology for food and water security in times of climate consciousness: a bibliometric analysis of peer-reviewed literature published from 1990 to 2020. Sustainability 13:5064. doi: 10.3390/su13095064

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Shamseer, L., Moher, D., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., et al. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P): elaboration and explanation. BMJ 349:g7647. doi: 10.1136/bmj.g7647

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Shisanya, S., and Mafongoya, P. (2017). Assessing rural farmers perceptions and vulnerability to climate change in uMzinyathi district of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 12, 815–828. doi: 10.5897/AJAR2016.11871

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Simba, S., Niemann, W., Kotze, T., and Agigi, A. (2017). Supply chain risk management processes for resilience: a study of south African grocery manufacturers. J. Transp. Supply Chain Manag. 11, 1–13. Available online at: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-ab7e39188

Google Scholar

Singh, M., Marchis, A., and Capri, E. (2014). Greening, new frontiers for research and employment in the agro-food sector. Sci. Total Environ. 472, 437–443. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.11.078

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Sithole, A. (2019). Women's use of indigenous knowledge systems to cope with climate change. Adv. Soc. Sci. Res. J. 6, 1–13. doi: 10.14738/assrj.66.6470

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Smith, J. (2020). Income inequality: A case study of South Africa's Gini coefficient. 2nd Edn. Cape Town: Academic Press.

Google Scholar

Suebsombut, P., Sekhari, A., Sureepong, P., Ueasangkomsate, P., and Bouras, A. (2017). “The using of bibliometric analysis to classify trends and future directions on “smart farm.” in 2nd Joint International Conference on Digital Arts, Media and Technology 2017: Digital Economy for Sustainable Growth, ICDAMT 2017, 136–141.

Google Scholar

Terdoo, F., and Feola, G. (2016). The vulnerability of rice value chains in sub-Saharan Africa: a review. Climate 4:47. doi: 10.20944/preprints201608.0097.v1

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Teressa, B. (2021). Impact of climate change on food availability—a review. Int. J. Food Sci. Agric. 5, 465–470. doi: 10.26855/ijfsa.2021.09.017

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Thow, A., Greenberg, S., Hara, M., Friel, S., Dutoit, A., and Sanders, D. (2018). Improving policy coherence for food security and nutrition in South Africa: a qualitative policy analysis. Food Secur. 10, 1105–1130. doi: 10.1007/s12571-018-0813-4

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Tirado, M. C., Clarke, L., McMichael, A. J., and Dawe, D. (2013). Climate change and food security: a framework document. Glob. Environ. Change 23, 935–946.

Google Scholar

Tirivangasi, H. (2018). Regional disaster risk management strategies for food security: probing southern African development community channels for influencing national policy. Jàmbá J. Disaster Risk Stud. 10, 1–7. Available online at: https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC-ecfbf649c

Google Scholar

Tshikovhi, M., and Wyk, R. (2021). South Africa’s increasing climate variability and its effect on food production. Outlook Agric. 50, 286–293. doi: 10.1177/00307270211004970

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Tubiello, F., Soussana, J., and Howden, M. (2007). Crop and pasture response to climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 19686–19690. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0701728104

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Tumwesigye, W., Aschalew, A., Wilber, W., and Destra, A. (2019). Impact of climate change on food systems: a narrative review. J. Water Res. Ocean Sci. 8:50. doi: 10.11648/j.wros.20190804.12

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Umar, M. (2023). Inherent and adaptive resilience of logistics operations in food supply chains. J. Bus. Logist. 45:12362. doi: 10.1111/jbl.12362

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Umetsu, C., and Miura, K. (2023). Building resilience for food and nutrition security in Africa: focusing on small-scale farmers. J. Rural. Probl. 59, 53–59. doi: 10.7310/arfe.59.53

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Vermeulen, S., Campbell, B., and Ingram, J. (2012). Climate change and food systems. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 37, 195–222. doi: 10.1146/annurev-environ-020411-130608

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Vignola, R., Esquivel, M. J., Harvey, C., Rapidel, B., Bautista-Solis, P., Alpizar, F., et al. (2022). Ecosystem-based practices for smallholders’ adaptation to climate extremes: evidence of benefits and knowledge gaps in Latin America. Agronomy 12:5335. doi: 10.3390/agronomy12102535

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Wheeler, T., and von Braun, J. (2013). Climate change impacts on global food security. Science 341, 508–513. doi: 10.1126/science.1239402

PubMed Abstract | Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Willett, C. (2021). Food supply chain resilience in an era of climate change: recommendations for Toronto, Ontario (Doctoral dissertation). Toronto, ON: Toronto Metropolitan University.

Google Scholar

World Bank (2021). World development indicators. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

Google Scholar

Wyk, S. (2022). Climate change law and policy in South Africa and Mauritius: adaptation and mitigation strategies in terms of the Paris agreement. Afr. J. Int. Comp. Law 30, 1–24. doi: 10.3366/ajicl.2022.0391

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Zavala-Alcívar, A., Verdecho, M. J., and Alfaro-Saiz, J. J. (2020). A conceptual framework to manage resilience and increase sustainability in the supply chain. Sustainability 12:6300. doi: 10.3390/su12166300

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Zia, B., Rafiq, M., Saqib, S. E., and Atiq, M. (2022). Agricultural market competitiveness in the context of climate change: a systematic review. Sustainability 14:721. doi: 10.3390/su14073721

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Ziervogel, G., New, M., Archer, E., Midgley, G., Taylor, A., Hamann, R., et al. (2014). Climate change impacts and adaptation in South Africa. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Clim. Chang. 5, 605–620. doi: 10.1002/wcc.295

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar

Zinyengere, N., Crespo, O., and Hachigonta, S. (2013). Crop response to climate change in southern Africa: a comprehensive review. Glob. Planet. Change 111, 118–126. doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2013.08.010

Crossref Full Text | Google Scholar