Novel ready-to-eat rice containing seaweed and shellfish with potential application as space food: overall food quality and antioxidant efficacy

Although ready-to-eat (RTE) foods are gaining popularity owing to their convenience, enhancing their nutritional value remains challenging. In this study, RTE-packaged rice intended for space food applications, fortified with green laver (Enteromorpha prolifera) and oyster (Crassostrea gigas), was developed and its nutritional composition and antioxidant activity were evaluated. Four RTE rice formulations were prepared as follows: rice (RPR), green laver-added (RPR-GL), oyster-added (RPR-O), and green laver and oyster-added (RPR-GLO). The proximate composition, mineral content, and antioxidant activity were analyzed to determine the functional impact of ingredient incorporation. Adding green laver and oysters significantly altered the proximate composition of the samples (p < 0.05). Protein and ash contents increased notably in RPR-GLO, with protein increasing from 2.84% in RPR to 4.39% and ash content increasing from 0.04 to 0.69%. Oyster inclusion contributed to higher moisture and potassium contents, while green laver elevated ash and mineral levels but showed low iodine concentrations. RPR-GLO exhibited the highest radical scavenging activity in both DPPH (23.24%) and ABTS (28.21%) assays, representing approximately 3.5-fold and 4.2-fold increases, respectively, compared to the control sample (RPR), suggesting a synergistic effect between the two ingredients. Therefore, incorporating green laver and oysters into RTE-packaged rice enhanced its nutritional quality and antioxidant activity.

1 Introduction

Space food is specifically designed for consumption in space. A primary goal in space food design is providing astronauts with nutritious and palatable meals that closely resemble the taste and quality of food consumed on Earth. Ensuring adequate food intake during missions is essential for meeting the nutritional demands of astronauts as well as significant in reducing the physiological and psychological stresses associated with prolonged space travel (Douglas et al., 2021). Among space foods, thermo-stabilized (retort-packaged) meals are widely used due to their convenience, stability, and long shelf life (Varghese et al., 2014). These features make retort-packaged meals suitable candidates for potential space food applications (Catauro et al., 2012). Retort technology involves selling food in heat-resistant pouches and cooking it at high temperatures, which ensures extended shelf life while maintaining safety and quality. Therefore, space food should provide adequate nutrition and maintain quality (Kordyum and Hasenstein, 2021).

Rice, similar to wheat and corn, is one of the highest-yielding grain crops worldwide. It has a global production of millions of tons annually and serves as the main staple food for over half of the global population (Muthayya et al., 2014). In Korea, where rice is the most frequently consumed staple food, ready-to-eat (RTE) packaged rice products have become a necessary part of the modern diet. Owing to rapid urbanization, an increase in single-person households, and lifestyle shifts toward convenience, consumption of shelf-stable microwaveable rice products has steadily increased over the past decades. These products offer convenience, hygiene, and consistent quality, and are widely accepted as substitutes for freshly cooked rice in daily meals.

Oysters (Crassostrea gigas) are nutrient-rich, providing high levels of protein, glycogen, and fat (Linehan et al., 1999). Recent studies have highlighted the synergistic effects of oysters combined with seaweed on enhancing antioxidant activity and mineral content (Ganesan et al., 2010; Meinita et al., 2022). Seaweed also offers a wide spectrum of bioactive substances beyond basic nutrition, encompassing compounds with potential therapeutic benefits. Thus, seaweed is a promising resource for future food innovation as well as pharmaceutical development (Shannon and Abu-Ghannam, 2019). Notably, green laver (Enteromorpha prolifera) is highly regarded for its functional constituents and adaptability in health-promoting diets. Dried green laver contains approximately 9–14% crude protein and 32–36% crude ash. It also provides notable amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids, with omega-3 and omega-6 contents reaching 10.4 and 10.9 g/100 g of dry weight, respectively (Sanjeewa et al., 2018). The combination of oyster and green laver is expected to enhance the protein content, mineral composition, and antioxidant properties of RTE rice products.

Although this study did not include analyses of microbiological safety, shelf stability, or packaging performance, the developed product demonstrates potential applicability as a space food candidate due to its high nutritional value, convenience, and long shelf life as a retort-packaged meal. Accordingly, a novel ready-to-eat (RTE) rice was formulated by incorporating green laver (Enteromorpha prolifera) and oyster (Crassostrea gigas), with a primary focus on evaluating its nutritional composition (proximate and mineral contents) and antioxidant activities, including 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) radical scavenging capacities.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Sample preparation

Green laver (Enteromorpha prolifera) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) were purchased from a traditional market in Tongyeong, Korea. Foreign materials were removed, and the samples were washed three times with tap water. The cleaned samples were blanched at 90 °C for 5 min, cut into 2 cm lengths, and then frozen for use in the preparation of RTE packaged rice. Polished white rice was obtained from Hanaro Mart (a local mart in Tongyeong, Korea) and used in the experiment.

2.2 Processing of RTE packaged rice containing green laver and oysters

The mixing ratios for the preparation of RTE packaged rice containing green laver and oysters were determined based on preliminary sensory evaluations (data not shown). When more than 10% green laver was added, an overly strong seaweed flavor was perceived, which negatively affected overall acceptability. Therefore, the amount of green laver added was limited to 10% or less. Similarly, when oyster content exceeded 10%, excess moisture released during cooking resulted in an undesirable soft texture of the rice. Thus, oyster addition was also limited to 10% or less. The amounts of oyster and green laver were adjusted to not exceed 10% of the total weight, prior to adding water. The formulation ratios of RTE packaged rice containing green laver and oysters are shown in Table 1 and Figure 1. The product was manufactured using a retort cooking and sterilization system (STERIACE, Kyunghan Co., Gyeongsan, Korea) at Hwashim Farming Cooperative (Asan, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea). The green laver and oyster RTE packaged rice was aseptically packed in polyethylene pouches with a total filling weight of 210 g and subjected to retort sterilization at 118 °C and 1.73 kg/cm² pressure for 40 min. Following retort processing, the packages were cooled at 40 °C for 25 min, kept at room temperature for 24 h, and then externally packaged for further analysis. A commercially available Home Meal Replacement (HMR) white rice product without green laver and oysters (CJ Co., Incheon, Korea) was used as the control.

Table 1

Table 1. Formulation of ready-to-eat packaged rice containing green laver and oyster.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Ready-to-eat packaged rice containing green laver and oyster. (A) Ready-to-eat packaged rice (RPR). (B) ready-to-eat packaged rice–green laver (RPR–GL). (C) Ready-to-eat packaged rice–oyster (RPR–O). (D) Ready-to-eat packaged rice–green laver and oyster (RPR–GLO).

2.3 Sample preparation for proximate composition and mineral analysis

To analyze the proximate composition and mineral content of the RTE packaged rice containing green laver and oyster, the samples were homogenized as follows. The RTE packaged rice was ground using a blender (SMX-8000EMT, Shinil, Seoul, Korea) and stored at −20 °C until further analysis.

2.4 Analysis of proximate composition

The proximate composition of RTE packaged rice, with and without the addition of green laver and oysters, was determined following the standard analytical procedures established by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (2000). Moisture content was determined using the air-drying method at 105 °C, and the decrease in weight was used to calculate the moisture content. The ash content was measured using the dry ash method, where the sample was heated at 550 °C, and the remaining ash was weighed. Crude fat content was extracted using the Soxhlet method, and crude protein was determined by the Kjeldahl method, using a nitrogen conversion factor of 6.25. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference as follows: Carbohydrate (%) = 100 − (moisture + protein + lipid + ash). All experiments were repeated three times, and the average values were used.

2.5 Analysis of mineral composition

Potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) were measured using ICP-OES (Optima 8,000, PerkinElmer) with a Sea Spray nebulizer and cyclonic spray chamber. Operating conditions included RF frequency of 27.12 MHz and argon gas flows of 16 L/min (plasma), 1.5 L/min (auxiliary), and 0.94 L/min (nebulizer). The element wavelengths were K (766.490 nm), Ca (317.933 nm), and Mg (285.213 nm). Iodine (I) was analyzed by ICP-MS (NexION 300D, PerkinElmer) using a Meinhard nebulizer. RF power was 1.35 kW, and argon flows were 16 L/min (plasma), 1.0–1.3 L/min (auxiliary), and 1.0–1.07 L/min (nebulizer). Instrument drift was corrected by running multi-element standards every 10 samples.

2.6 Antioxidant activity measurement

For antioxidant activity measurement, 5 g of the ground RTE packaged rice sample was mixed with 95 mL of 80% ethanol. The mixture was homogenized using a homogenizer (HG-15A, Daihan Scientific, Wonju, Korea) and extracted in a shaking incubator (JSSI-100C, JS Research Inc., Gongju, Korea) at room temperature for 24 h. After extraction, the solution was filtered using Whatman No. 2 filter paper (Whatman International Ltd., Maidstone, England), and the filtrate was stored at −20 °C until use.

2.6.1 DPPH radical scavenging activity

The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the extract was measured by modifying the method of Kang et al. (2016). In a 96-well plate, 100 μL of a 1.5 × 10⁴ M DPPH solution and 100 μL of the extract were added, vortexed for 10 s, and left at room temperature for 30 min. Absorbance was then measured at 517 nm using a spectrophotometer (Spectronic2D, Thermo Electron Co., Waltham, MA, United States). DPPH radical scavenging activity was expressed as the percentage reduction in absorbance, with comparisons made between the control (RTE packaged rice without additives) and the sample containing green laver and oysters.

2.6.2 ABTS radical scavenging activity

ABTS radical scavenging activity was analyzed according to the method of the ABTS radical formation using 7 mM ABTS and 2.45 mM potassium persulfate, which were dissolved in distilled water and left in the dark for 14–16 h to form the ABTS radical cation. The extract and the ABTS solution were mixed at a 1:1 ratio. Absorbance was measured at 415 nm using a spectrophotometer (Spectronic2D, Thermo Electron Co., Waltham, MA, United States). ABTS radical scavenging activity was expressed as the percentage reduction in absorbance, with comparisons made between the control (RTE packaged rice without additives) and the sample containing green laver and oysters.

2.7 Statistical analysis

All experiments are performed in triplicate ± standard deviations. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the statistical software. All experiments were analyzed with Duncan’s multiple range test to identify any potential differences. The statistical significance of the results was tested at the 5% probability level (p < 0.05).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Proximate analysis and mineral content of RTE packaged rice with green laver and oyster for space food

The ability of space food to remain shelf-stable at ambient temperatures is a key requirement for extended-duration missions. Appropriate processing and maintenance of aseptic conditions are essential to ensure both microbial safety and product stability. As the RTE-packaged rice with green laver and oyster products was processed using a retort sterilizer, no viable microorganisms, including total viable bacteria, Escherichia coli, and coliforms, were expected to be detected. This assumption was confirmed by preliminary microbial analyses in which all tested microbial counts were below the detectable limits (data not shown). In addition to microbial safety and extended shelf life, the nutritional value of space foods is equally important. Although macronutrients such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates and micronutrients including zinc, folic acid, vitamin D, and iron are required in relatively small amounts, they are essential for maintaining the physiological functions of the human body (Savarino et al., 2021). However, many currently available space food products tend to be rich in carbohydrates and fats while lacking sufficient dietary fiber (Pandith et al., 2023). Therefore, focusing on developing seafood-based ready-to-eat meals as space food with an emphasis on health and nutrition is important for improving vitamin stability and bioavailability, ensuring adequate nutrient intake for astronauts during missions, and minimizing nutritional degradation. This study demonstrates that incorporation of green laver and oysters into RTE-packaged rice significantly alters its nutritional and functional properties. Specifically, an increase in protein and ash contents was observed in the samples, along with changes in the levels of essential minerals, including potassium, calcium, and magnesium.

Four RTE-packaged rice samples were prepared as follows: rice only (RPR), green laver-added (RPR-GL), oyster-added (RPR-O), and green laver and oyster-added (RPR-GLO). Adding green laver and oysters significantly influenced the proximate composition of the samples (p < 0.05), as summarized in Table 2. The moisture content varied significantly among groups. The RPR-GL sample exhibited the lowest moisture content (57.54%), which was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than that of the control sample (60.97%). Conversely, the RPR-O and RPR-GLO samples showed higher moisture contents of 63.45 and 64.15%, respectively, with no significant differences between the two groups (p > 0.05). These findings suggest that the moisture-retaining properties of oysters contribute to the increased water content in oyster-containing samples.

Table 2

Table 2. Proximate composition of ready-to-eat packaged rice containing green laver and oyster for space food.

Protein content was significantly increased by adding green laver and oysters. RPR contained 2.84% protein, whereas RPR-O had the highest protein content at 4.84%, representing a relative increase of ~70% compared with RPR. RPR-GLO and RPR-GL showed protein increases of ~55% and ~10%, respectively. Notably, the protein content of RPR-O was more than twice that of RPR. This increase was likely attributed to the high protein concentration of oysters, which typically contain 39.1–53.1% protein on a dry weight basis, depending on the species and processing methods (Hao et al., 2022). These findings are consistent with those of previous studies on oyster-enriched products. Furthermore, when a sauce was developed using individually quick-frozen (IQF) oysters, the protein content was reported to be approximately 8.2–8.3%, nearly double that observed in this study (Hwang et al., 2016). The relatively low protein content observed in this study may be attributed to the small proportion of oysters used in the formulation and the dilution effect of rice, which was the primary component. Although thermal processing typically increases protein concentration owing to moisture reduction (Shim et al., 2015), this effect appears to have been offset by the compositional balance of the ingredients.

Lipid content was highest in the control sample (0.29%), which was significantly higher than that in RPR-GL (0.10%, ~65% decrease), RPR-O (0.28%, ~3% decrease), and RPR-GLO (0.25%, ~14% decrease). No significant differences were observed among the three groups (p > 0.05). This pattern suggests that adding green laver and oysters may dilute the overall lipid content, likely because of their relatively low-fat levels and the absence of lipid-rich ingredients in the formulation.

Incorporation of green laver and oysters significantly increased the ash content, reflecting the total mineral composition of the RTE-packaged rice samples. The RPR-GLO sample exhibited the highest ash content (0.69%), followed by the RPR-GL (0.44%) and RPR-O (0.36%) samples. In contrast, the rice-only control sample (RPR) had a markedly lower ash content of 0.04%. These findings indicate that adding green laver and oysters substantially enhanced the mineral profile of the final product. Laver is known for its considerable concentration of minerals, such as potassium (K), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), and calcium (Ca), as well as essential amino acids, including methionine, threonine, and tryptophan (Sahoo et al., 2002). These compositional attributes likely contributed to the increased ash content in laver-containing samples.

Compared with the proximate composition of oyster gratin reported by Kang et al. (2022), which contained 61.8% moisture, 8.5% protein, 16.1% fat, and 1.2% ash, RPR-GLO developed in this study showed notable differences. The moisture content of RPR-GLO (64.15%) was slightly higher, likely because of the water-retaining properties of rice and the specific cooking process applied. The protein content (4.39%) was considerably lower, reflecting a smaller proportion of oysters and the inherently low protein content of rice. The fat content (0.25%) was significantly reduced compared to that in oyster gratin, presumably because high-fat ingredients, such as butter or cream, which are commonly used in gratin, were excluded. The ash content (0.69%) was also lower, possibly because of differences in the form and quantity of the green laver and oysters used (e.g., powder versus extract).

The carbohydrate content varies significantly depending on the ingredient composition. RPR showed the highest carbohydrate level at 35.86%, while RPR-GL and RPR-O contained 38.80 and 31.07% of carbohydrates, respectively. The lowest carbohydrate content was observed in RPR-GLO (30.52%). This decreasing trend reflects a relative increase in protein and ash content, which collectively reduces the proportion of carbohydrates in the final product.

Overall, adding green laver and oysters enhanced the nutritional profile of RTE-packaged rice by increasing the protein and mineral content, and significantly altered its proximate composition. These results suggest that these ingredients can improve the functional and nutritional qualities of instant rice products. Further optimization of ingredient proportions may allow for tailored formulations that target specific nutritional requirements or consumer preferences. In addition, rice starch digestibility is a critical parameter to consider when developing space foods, since the rate of starch hydrolysis directly impacts postprandial glycemic responses and gastrointestinal comfort. Previous studies have demonstrated that starch digestibility is modulated by physicochemical characteristics such as the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio, cooking and retrogradation processes, and the level of moisture present (Singh et al., 2010). When starch is heated in the presence of ample water, its crystalline structure is disrupted, allowing hydrogen bonding between water molecules and the hydroxyl groups of amylose and amylopectin. This interaction promotes granule swelling and enhances solubility, making water availability a critical factor that governs the extent of enzymatic hydrolysis (Singh et al., 2010). The mineral compositions of the RTE-packaged rice samples are presented in Table 3. Potassium content varied among the samples, with RPR-O showing the highest concentration of 113.0 mg/kg, followed by RPR-GLO at 96.88 mg/kg. RPR contained 80.3 mg/kg of potassium, whereas RPR-GL exhibited the lowest level at 53.9 mg/kg. Calcium content was also elevated in oyster-containing samples, with RPR-O and RPR-GLO containing 8.0 mg/kg and 8.1 mg/kg, respectively, compared to 4.8 mg/kg in RPR and 5.7 mg/kg in RPR-GL. Magnesium levels were the highest in RPR (16.6 mg/kg), while RPR-O and RPR-GL showed similar but slightly reduced concentrations, ranging from 11.6 mg/kg (RPR-GL) to 16.9 mg/kg (RPR-GLO). Iodine was not detected (ND) in any of the samples. This result differs from previous reports showing that certain seaweed contains measurable iodine levels. The discrepancy might be due to differences in species, harvest season, or regional variations in seawater iodine concentration (Lee et al., 2025). These results indicate that oyster supplementation enhances potassium and calcium levels, whereas green laver may have a diminishing effect on these minerals. The elevated mineral concentrations in RPR-O were consistent with previous findings identifying oysters as rich sources of essential elements. Zhu et al. (2018) reported that oysters are particularly high in calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, copper, and selenium, supporting their potential role in improving the mineral composition of fortified food products. These findings are particularly relevant for space food development, as microgravity conditions are known to induce bone density loss due to both reduced mechanical stress and altered hormonal regulation (Grimm et al., 2016). The higher calcium and potassium contents observed in oyster-fortified RTE rice (RPR-O and RPR-GLO) suggest that such formulations may help mitigate bone loss in astronauts during long-duration missions.

Table 3

Table 3. Mineral content of ready-to-eat packaged rice containing green laver and oyster for space food.

Recently, Jacobsen et al. (2023) reviewed the iodine contents across species within the genus Ulva, noting that Ulva intestinalis contains higher iodine levels (12.4 mg/100 g dried weight) compared to Ulva fenestrata (3.2 mg/100 g), while Ulva rigida showed no detectable iodine. Given that green laver belongs to the same genus, these findings suggest that iodine concentrations in Ulva species, as well as green laver, are generally low and unlikely to pose significant health risks.

3.2 Antioxidant activity of RTE packaged rice with green laver and oyster for space food

The antioxidant activities of RTE-packaged rice samples, assessed using DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays, are presented in Figure 2. In the DPPH assay, RPR showed the lowest scavenging activity (6.74%), whereas RPR-GL and RPR-O showed significantly enhanced antioxidant activity to 15.22 and 10.11%, respectively. The highest DPPH activity was observed in RPR-GLO (23.24%), which contained both green laver and oysters. A similar pattern was observed in the ABTS assay; RPR showed the lowest activity (6.74%), whereas RPR-GL and RPR-O demonstrated increased scavenging capacities of 20.18 and 13.12%, respectively. RPR-GLO exhibited the highest ABTS activity (28.21%). These results clearly indicate that the addition of green laver and oysters markedly enhanced the antioxidant potential of RTE-packaged rice. Park et al. (2024) reported that Makgeolli supplemented with Codium fragile (COM) exhibited significantly higher DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities than the control rice-oat Makgeolli (CRM) (p < 0.05), with values approximately 1.4 times greater (CRM: 40.00%/51.57%, COM: 56.76%/70.91%). Although the absolute values differ due to matrix and extraction differences, this comparison suggests that the combination of green laver and oysters in RTE rice confers a notable antioxidant effect comparable to that observed in other functional foods enriched with seaweed. The superior performance of RPR-GLO suggests that a synergistic effect arises from the combination of these two ingredients. In particular, the notable impact of green laver on antioxidant activity is supported by previous research. Several studies have reported that green algae generally exhibit stronger antioxidant activity than red algae, and that brown algae often surpass green algae in this regard (Ferreira et al., 2024). Farasat et al. (2014) analyzed various Ulva species and identified substantial levels of antioxidant activity, which were closely associated with their total phenolic and flavonoid content. Green laver is recognized for its abundance of bioactive compounds, including phenolic constituents, sulfated polysaccharides, chlorophyll, and carotenoids, which contribute significantly to its antioxidant capacity (Farasat et al., 2014). Oysters are also rich in bioactive components, including peptides, taurine, and trace elements, such as zinc and selenium, which contribute to radical scavenging activity through various mechanisms (Zhu et al., 2018). Therefore, the enhanced antioxidant capacity observed in RPR-GLO may be attributed to the synergistic action of the hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant compounds present in both green laver and oysters. These findings indicate that green laver and oysters have significant potential as dietary sources of antioxidants, suggesting their applicability in functional foods and nutritional supplements.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Antioxidant activity (DPPH and ABTS) of green laver and oyster-added ready-to-eat packaged rice for space application. RPR, ready-to-eat packaged rice; RPR–GL, ready-to-eat packaged rice–green laver; RPR–O, ready-to-eat packaged rice–oyster; RPR–GLO, ready-to-eat packaged rice–green laver and oyster. The data indicate means with standard deviations (three samples/treatment). Means with different letters (a–d) were found to differ significantly (p < 0.05) by Duncan’s multiple range test.

4 Conclusion

This study demonstrated that incorporating green laver and oysters into ready-to-eat (RTE) packaged rice significantly enhanced its nutritional and functional properties. Mineral analysis revealed that oysters had enhanced potassium and calcium levels, whereas green laver exhibited comparatively low iodine content, which is consistent with previous findings on Ulva species. Antioxidant activity, assessed through DPPH and ABTS assays, was markedly improved in samples containing green laver and oyster, with the RPR-GLO formulation showing the most significant radical scavenging activity. Overall, these results suggested that green laver and oysters are promising functional ingredients for improving the nutritional quality and antioxidant potential of RTE rice products. Further research is warranted to evaluate the stability and suitability of these RTE-packaged rice products under space environment conditions to support their potential application as functional space foods.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

EBJ: Writing – original draft, Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing – review & editing. J-SL: Methodology, Writing – original draft. M-CO: Validation, Writing – review & editing. SYP: Validation, Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by the Research Resurgence under the Glocal University 30 Project at Gyeongsang National University in 2024.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The authors declare that no Gen AI was used in the creation of this manuscript.

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