The relationship between perceptions of non-formal education and perceptions of 21st-century skills in a religious-collectivist community

Introduction: This study examines the relationship between ultra-Orthodox teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education and their perceptions of 21^st-century skills. These skills comprise a set of competencies essential for successful integration into today’s workforce and civic life. Teachers’ perceptions of these skills and their importance are critical for their successful implementation in the classroom. Several factors contribute to teachers’ positive perceptions of 21^st-century skills, one of which is a positive view of non-formal education, which is a flexible, investigative, and creative educational method. This research explores this relationship by focusing on teachers from the ultra-Orthodox collectivist culture, a community that tends to show conflicting attitudes toward 21^st-century skills and non-formal education.

Methods: A group of 238 ultra-Orthodox teachers completed a questionnaire regarding perceptions of non-formal education, 21^st-century skills and demographic data.

Results: The findings indicate that positive perceptions of non-formal education are associated with all dimensions of 21^st-century skills, with the strongest related to communication skills, which is aligned with cultural norms, while creativity showed the weakest association, which also reflects a broad cultural rejection of this skill.

Discussion: The study reinforces the positive connection between educational approaches and perceptions of 21^st-century skills, including within a religious collectivist community.

Introduction

In today’s world, 21^st-century skills have become critical tools for success (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). Although there are differing definitions for these skills, one of the most widely accepted is the 4Cs definition—including communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity (Casner-Lotto and Barrington, 2006). Acquisition of these skills is rooted in education systems’ awareness, perceptions, and implementation, which is a result of educational and cultural approaches (Prasetyo et al., 2021). On the educational level, a flexible and inquiry-oriented educational approach, such as in non-formal education, can contribute to positive attitudes toward new and different skill sets needed by students (Jabeen et al., 2024). On the cultural level, communities that are open to change and maintain a low power distance may find it easier to adapt to changes in perception of the skills required for its members (Avidov-Ungar and Busharian, 2023).

The present study focuses on the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education and 21^st-century skills in the ultra-Orthodox community in Israel. This community is a religious-collectivist society (Barth and Ben-Ari, 2014) that has firm control over its members’ formal education, which manifests in some difficulties in accepting and implementing non-formal education (Barth et al., 2025). Moreover, this community segregates itself from the individualistic majority, and places a clear emphasis on the perceived hazards associated with technology and change (Rosenberg and Blondheim, 2021). All this creates obstacles to assimilating 21^st-century skills as promoted by the Ministry of Education. The aim of this study is to examine whether the positive connection found in individualistic culture between 21^st-century skills and non-formal education is relevant to this cultural context, and to understand how this relationship relates to the different cultural challenges they pose in ultra-Orthodox society.

Literature review

Teachers’ perceptions of 21^st-century skills

The changing modern world in the post-technological revolution era with its processes of globalization have turned civic reality into a volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous world. This reality is shaping the future in terms of the personal, professional, and social skills needed for success. In recent decades, people and organizations around the world have formed a new skill set that equips individuals for effective integration into the work force and civic life, referred to as “21^st-century skills” (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023).

Since this term appeared, numerous definitions have been offered to describe it (Anagün, 2018; Cevik, 2019; Chalkiadaki, 2018; Smith and Hu, 2013). One of the most widely accepted definitions highlights individuals’ soft skills, based on four components that are termed the 4Cs: Creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration (Casner-Lotto and Barrington, 2006). Creativity is the capacity to generate or suggest a unique, original idea or work that is task-appropriate and is valuable to the individual or environment (Valverde et al., 2020). Critical thinking involves the ability to understand and analyze abstract concepts and information and use this understanding in order to guide action (Pasquinelli et al., 2021). Communication refers to the verbal, non-verbal, or written ability to exchange knowledge to influence social reality, based on social skills that forge common ground among the participants (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). Collaboration entails participatory work toward attaining a mutual goal and includes shared objectives, activities and assets that are based on trust, respect, and accountability (Détienne et al., 2012).

21^st-century skills are essential for integration into the work force and civic life (Cevik, 2019). Therefore, their assimilation into education systems is crucial given the need to prepare students for the world of the future (Prasetyo et al., 2021). In view of this importance, the Israeli Ministry of Education has incorporated them into its education system, although this is still more effective at the declarative level rather than being actualized in school practice (Nir et al., 2016).

The positive effects of integrating 21^st-century skills into education systems include better pedagogical competency, greater motivation among teachers, and innovative teaching methods (Amzaleg and Masry-Herzallah, 2022). Teachers holding positive attitudes toward integrating 21^st-century skills have a positive approach to constructivist learning environments (Anagün, 2018). Student-teachers who perceive 21^st-century skills in a positive manner tend to assess their students’ competencies as higher (Tican and Deniz, 2019). Moreover, students with positive 21^st-century skills perceptions show better attitudes toward learning in STEM fields (Atabey and Topcu, 2021).

A variety of demographic and professional factors influence the development of positive attitudes toward 21^st-century skills among teachers. Demographic factors such as gender were found to be predictors, with male teachers tending to have better information and communication literacy and interdisciplinary teaching skills, while female teachers show higher levels of empathy, innovation, and sharing skills (Amzaleg and Masry-Herzallah, 2022). Age is also an important determinant of these attitudes: Younger teachers demonstrate better use of collaborative teaching skills than older teachers (Adewale, 2024). Culture is another factor, and research on cooperative learning in South Korea found that the idea of fairness was a new concept for the participants (Tinmaz and Ozturk, 2022).

Teachers’ professional abilities, including digital literacy levels, were identified as key positive predictors of 21^st-century skills (Özer and Kuloğlu, 2023). Teacher leadership in facilitating educational standards, participating in organizational development, fostering a collaborative culture, and being a role model for colleagues is positively correlated with perceptions of 21^st-century skills (Singh and Singh, 2022). Perceptions of non-formal education influence perceptions of 21^st-century skills including citizenship, collaboration, communication, creativity, and critical thinking (Jabeen et al., 2024).

Teachers’ perception of non-formal education

There are three forms of educational paradigms: Formal, non-formal, and informal (Gross and Rutland, 2017). Formal education is guided by governments, standard achievements, and a structured curriculum accompanied by assessment and evaluation processes and influenced by external motivation. Informal education is an unstructured, voluntary, and unevaluated learning process, driven by internal motivation. Non-formal education is a voluntary and unevaluated process, yet it is structured and encourages personal development; it usually derives from internal motivation (Tisza et al., 2020).

Non-formal education is considered a flexible, investigative, and creative educational paradigm (Romi and Schmida, 2009). Kahane’s (1997) definition of non-formal education includes parameters regarding participation in a non-formal activity such as: voluntarism, where participants take part of their own free will; or symmetry, meaning low power distance between facilitators and participants. Other parameters regarding the nature of the non-formal activity include the following: Multiplexity, with the ability to choose activities from a broad spectrum of possibilities; modularity, conveying ability to change activities based on conditions in the field; expressive instrumentalism, where activities serve for participants’ leisure as well as learning purposes; and pragmatic symbolism, ascribing symbolic value to the activity itself. Another set of parameters relate to the identity development of participants, including dualism, which is the ability to hold competing values and ideas at the same time; and moratorium, referring to the pathway for identity formation.

There are beneficial impacts that non-formal education offers, including improved motivation for learning and engagement in the process, which promote learning achievements in schools (Dumitru, 2018). Non-formal education enhances skills in various fields such as cognitive skills: Critical thinking, problem solving, creative thinking, goal setting; interactive skills: Communication, teamwork, constructive criticism; and practical skills: Initiative, time management, adaptation, and productivity (Asiyai, 2018). Participation in non-formal education during adolescence has been positively correlated with youth employment (Yeranosyan, 2020). It also has implications on a social level, as it promotes literacy, skill development and poverty reduction (Ololube and Egbezor, 2012). Non-formal education was also found to have long-term positive impact in terms of educational achievements, economics, and emotional health (Simac et al., 2021).

Culture shapes the structure and operation of non-formal education. Totalitarian cultures dictate the nature of non-formal education and prevent the practice of some of its dimensions (Dascalu, 2017). Hofstede (1980) defines culture along four continuums: individualism–collectivism, low power distance–high power distance, ability or inability to bear uncertainty-hardship, and femininity–masculinity. In non-formal education collectivist cultures, such as in some Arab countries, the focus is on basic learning, while in individualistic cultures, as in many European countries, the focus is on leisure and labor market skills (Latchem, 2014). Israel, which is considered an individualistic society, highlights and invests multiple resources in the development of non-formal education (Goldratt and Cohen, 2016). Nevertheless, Israel also contains several collectivist sub-cultures. The Israeli-Arab sector is a collectivist minority that presents barriers in implementing non-formal education because of cultural attributes (Hassan, 2014). The ultra-Orthodox community is another collectivist sub-culture, yet it has not received academic attention with regard to non-formal education.

Theoretical framework

This study is based on the Constructivism Learning Theory, which views learning as a process that is based on prior knowledge, the context in which learning occurs, and students’ attitudes and perceptions. In the field of education, constructivism applies to the way people construct knowledge and meaning through experience, allowing for multiple learning strategies and instructional methods. The theory claims that the learning process is personal – resulting from individuals’ internal mechanisms that help explain information by triggering curiosity for understanding (Bada and Olusegun, 2015).

In light of this theory, the research suggests that non-formal education provides a flexible and inviting platform for learning which sparks curiosity. Non-formal education creates conditions conducive to innovative learning, enabling the intuitive development of 21^st-century skills of communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creativity.

Research context: the ultra-orthodox community in Israel

The ultra-Orthodox community in Israel is a religious-collectivist subculture (Barth and Ben-Ari, 2014). Its characteristics align with Hofstede’s (1980) definition of prioritizing social goals as the population’s primary interest (Russo-Netzer and Bergman, 2020); maintaining high power distance by following religious authority, as embodied in the concept of Daát Tora (Brown, 2014); having low capacity to bear uncertainty, as was the case during the COVID-19 pandemic (Trachtingot et al., 2024); and leading a gendered segregated social life with gender specific roles (Yahalom, 2022). Although this community is composed of different subgroups relating to the group’s historical origins (Litvak, Hasidic, Sephardic) (Velan et al., 2022) and degree of religious conservatism (Cahaner, 2020), it has a strong common denominator which is expressed mainly in social segregation (Friedman, 1991).

This segregation has intensified in recent decades, especially in view of technological advances and globalization processes (Kalagy et al., 2020). The community tries to regulate the introduction of technological advances while rejecting those that might threaten its values, such as television (Neriya-Ben Shahar, 2017) and integrating technologies that do not, such as in vitro fertilization (Kol, 2018). However, most new technologies put community leaders into situations of conflict, especially regarding internet usage (Neriya-Ben Shahar et al., 2023) and smartphones (Rosenberg and Blondheim, 2021). 21^st-century skills involve cognitive, emotional, and practical abilities associated with internet-based technology use, which can be threatening for the ultra-Orthodox community and create suspicion. This issue has gained some scholarly attention, mostly regarding internet usage (Avidov-Ungar and Busharian, 2023), but has not been thoroughly analyzed with reference to the 4Cs.

A primary mechanism of social segregation in the ultra-Orthodox community is its education system. The ultra-Orthodox education system is recognized but non-formal, as opposed to the formal system of Israel’s general population (Perry-Hazan, 2023). The system is gendered-segregated, comprised of different institutions with legal statuses that determine their pedagogical obligation to include a core curriculum for governmental funding (Perry-Hazan, 2015). The ultra-Orthodox education system particularly values religious learning for boys, which it regards as a religious commandment. It encourages general learning for girls, in order for them to integrate into the work force and support their husbands’ religious learning (Barth et al., 2020). In general, this system highly values formal education institutions and traditional pedagogical methods (Barth and Trachtengot, 2022).

With regard to non-formal education in the ultra-Orthodox community, it appears that the term itself is perceived as problematic, and most of its components are considered unacceptable (Barth et al., 2020). Only a few studies have addressed the issue of non-formal education in the ultra-Orthodox community, and they point to a significant difference between non-formal education for boys, which is very limited, and more extensive non-formal education options for girls, but which do not include elements of identity and leadership development (Barth et al., 2022). Another study showed that ultra-Orthodox teachers’ training programs do not include instruction in concepts related to non-formal education and there is no specific curriculum on this topic (Barth et al., 2024). The issue of non-formal education in ultra-Orthodox schools has not been researched.

The present research study aims to examine whether ultra-Orthodox teachers’ perceptions of the 4Cs of 21^st-century skills, which generate cultural conflict regarding the issue (Avidov-Ungar and Busharian, 2023), affect their perception of the dimension of non-formal education (Kahane, 1997). The study will expand the existing knowledge in the academic literature regarding the relationship between teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education and 21st-century skills in terms of the issue of culture. The perception of non-formal education by the ultra-Orthodox population regarding participation-related issues (voluntarism and symmetry) is challenged by the hierarchical structure of the collective community. The dimensions of the activity itself are challenged by the need to control information and action in general, especially when related to children (multiplexity and modularity), and by the primacy accorded to social-religious values over any other value (expressive instrumentalism and pragmatic symbolism). The dimensions regarding identity formation (dualism and moratorium) are also challenged by the social aspiration for closed identity formation (Barth et al., 2025).

Moreover, the perceptions of 21^st-century skills are also challenged by cultural factors. Methods of collaboration can be accepted by the ultra-Orthodox community, given the close and tight community relations based on the value of helping others (Klonover et al., 2023). Other components, however, might pose some difficulties for ultra-Orthodox teachers. Communication could be challenged due to power distance issues, as was found in other collectivist cultures such as Indonesia (Sari et al., 2023). Critical thinking could be problematic given its ability to challenge authority, which poses a threat to ultra-Orthodox social norms (Brown, 2014). Creativity, within the framework of 21^st-century skills, is mostly directed at technological skills, and this is regarded as a threat and hazard in the ultra-Orthodox community (Avidov-Ungar and Busharian, 2023). Taken together, these factors turn what seems to be a simple relationship between perceptions of non-formal education and 21^st-century skills into something much more complicated. The question then arises: Are these issues connected? And if so, how?

Research hypotheses:

1. Ultra-Orthodox teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education will be related to their perceptions of collaboration as part of 21^st-century skills.

2. Ultra-Orthodox teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education will be related to their perceptions of communication as part of 21^st-century skills.

3. Ultra-Orthodox teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education will be related to their perception of critical thinking as part of 21^st-century skills.

4. Ultra-Orthodox teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education will be related to their perception of creativity as part of 21^st-century skills.

Methods

Procedure

The study was carried out during 2023–2024 using a convenience sampling method. The research criterion was teachers’ cultural affiliation. A research assistant worked with the researchers to access teachers in the ultra-Orthodox community. The research assistant is himself an ultra-Orthodox individual who holds an academic master’s degree. Participants were approached through internal social circles in the community. The researchers themselves also approached ultra-Orthodox teachers to participate in the research. On the one hand, it is very difficult to access the ultra-Orthodox community, due to its segregation from the majority population, and personal connections are almost the only way to achieve cooperation. On the other hand, this method poses problems for the research and creates a recruitment bias (unconscious preference for similar participants). It also makes it impossible to calculate response rate.

The research followed all ethical guidelines – the teachers were informed about the research aim; they were given an opportunity to ask questions and were assured of confidentiality and anonymity. All teachers signed an informed consent form. The research received ethical approval from the Chief Scientist of the Israel Ministry of Education (Number: 13756).

Since data for both independent and dependent variables were collected via self-report questionnaires from the same participants at a single point in time, it was possible that Common Method Bias (CMB) could potentially influence the results. To mitigate this risk, procedural remedies were employed during data collection. Participants were assured of complete anonymity and confidentiality, and it was emphasized that there were no right or wrong answers, reducing the likelihood of social desirability bias.

Analytically, Harman’s Single-Factor Test was conducted to assess the extent of CMB. An unrotated Principal Component Analysis including all items from both the Non-Formal Education and 21^st-century Skills scales was performed, constrained to extract a single factor. The results indicated that the single factor explained 31.94% of the total variance, which is well below the critical threshold of 50%. This suggests that Common Method Bias is not a significant issue in this study’s data.

Participants

A total of 238 ultra-Orthodox teachers participated in the study: 107 men (45%) and 131 women (55%). Their average age was 36.06 (SD = 9.90). A total 222 of the teachers were married (93%) and on average had 4.67 children (SD = 2.95). Regarding the social composition of the ultra-Orthodox community, 91 defined themselves as Litvak (38%), 66 as Hasidic (28%), and 81 as Sephardic (34%). Regarding the level of religious conservatism, 122 defined themselves as very pious (51%) 85 defined themselves as moderately conservative (mid-scale) (36%), and 31 as modern ultra-Orthodox (13%).

In terms of the participants’ professional profiles, 16 teach in ‘petor’ [exempt] legal status schools (7%), 79 in ‘recognized unofficial’ legal status schools (35%), 37 in ‘Bnei Yosef’ legal status schools (16.5%), 37 in ‘Chinuch Atzmayi’ legal status schools (16.5%), 34 teach in ‘Mamach’ legal status schools (15%), and 23 teach in ‘Mamad’ legal status schools. 40 of the participants held a managerial position in school (17.5%), 3 were school counselors (1.5%), 27 had a coordinator role (12%), 108 were homeroom teachers (48%), and 48 were subject teachers (21%). A total 17 of the participants did not have any formal accreditation (7.5%), 38 were certified teachers (17%), 26 held an equivalent degree (11.5%), 64 held a bachelor’s degree (28%), and 81 held a master’s degree (36%). A total 141 of the participants had taken a course in non-formal education (59%), while 97 reported they had no training in the non-formal education field (41%).

Measures

Three research tools were used in the study: A perception of non-formal education questionnaire, a perception of 21^st-century skills questionnaire, and a demographic questionnaire.

The Perception of non-formal education questionnaire is based on Kahane’s (1997) definition, and the research tool developed by Gruner (2017). The original questionnaire included 34 items related to six of Kahane’s (1997) components: Voluntarism, symmetry, modularity, expressive instrumentalism, pragmatic symbolism, and moratorium (multiplexity and dualism were not tested). Two components were added in this study regarding time and space, and gender perception. In order to validate the questionnaire for ultra-Orthodox teachers, the questionnaire was reviewed by five ultra-Orthodox educational experts. After their recommended changes were incorporated, the revised questionnaire was sent to Dr. Gruner—the questionnaire author—for an additional round of validation.

The questionnaire was comprised of 28 items divided into the eight components of the non-formal educational code: Voluntarism (examined by three items – a sample item: “The teacher reaches out to students in order to encourage them to participate in the non-formal activity”); Symmetry (examined by three items – a sample item: “Teachers and students plan the activity together”); Modularity (examined by five items – a sample item: “The teachers ensure that all students participate in the non-formal activity and discover their hidden talents”); Expressive Instrumentalism (examined by five items – a sample item: “Every group of students receives an individual response suited to its nature and culture”); Pragmatic symbolism (examined by five items – a sample item: “The school takes part in community ceremonies”); Time and space (examined by three items –a sample item: “The non-formal activity takes place during the students’ free time”); Moratorium (examined by two items – a sample item: “Even if a student is expelled from the activity, they will be allowed to return”); Gender perception (examined by two items – a sample item: “Boys take on different roles than girls” – both are reverse items). The answers were measured on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). The reliability of the questionnaire yields Cronbach’s Alpha of (α = 0.83).

The perception of 21^st-century skills questionnaire is based on the list published by the Israeli Ministry of Education defined as mandatory goals for the education system. The list of 36 items covers all areas of the 4Cs: Collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativity. The teachers were asked to rate the perceived importance of each skill on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 (“not important at all”) to 5 (“very important”). The sampling adequacy was confirmed with a KMO value of 0.93, which is well above the recommended threshold of 0.60, and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity was statistically significant (chi² = 4,591.23, df = 630, p < 0.001). Factors were retained based on eigenvalues greater than 1.0 and inspection of the scree plot. Items were retained if they had a primary factor loading of 0.40 or higher and did not display high cross-loadings (difference < 0.15) on other factors. Communalities (h²) for the included items were generally high, ranging from 0.58 to 0.75, indicating that the factor structure accounts for a significant portion of the variance in the observed variables. Based on these criteria, a four-factor solution was therefore obtained, explaining a total of 62.05% of the variance. Table 1 presents the factor loadings, communalities, and eigenvalues for the final model.

Table 1

Table 1. Factor analysis for 21^stcentury skills – ministry of education items.

Table 1 reveals four separate factors that match the 4Cs structure. The first factor includes: Cognitive flexibility, proactivity, growth consciousness, hope, resiliency, purpose, problem solving, trust, openness, reflective thinking, persistence, and flexibility, which can be defined as communication skills (cognitive flexibility, proactivity, problem solving, openness, reflective thinking, persistence, and flexibility) and inter-personal skills (growth consciousness, hope, resiliency, purpose and trust) that promote communication with others. The reliability of the factor yields Cronbach’s Alpha of (α = 0.90).

The second factor includes responsibility, cooperation, belonging, attention, self-efficacy, motivation, integrity, self-awareness, and risk management, which can be defined as collaboration skills. The reliability of the factor yields Cronbach’s Alpha of (α = 0.87).

The third factor includes equality, justice, empathy, respect, compassion, global awareness, gratitude, and identity, which can be defined as critical thinking skills (global awareness and identity) and conception (equality and justice) as well as empathic skills that allow people to realize personal and social differences which are the basis for critical thinking (empathy, respect, compassion, and gratitude). The reliability of the factor yields Cronbach’s Alpha of (α = 0.81).

The fourth factor includes practical technological skills, learning skills, judgment skills, practical artistic and musical skills, curiosity, and creativity, which can be defined as creativity skills. The reliability of the factor yields Cronbach’s Alpha of (α = 0.79).

The demographic questionnaire included personal details: age (in years), gender (male, female), marital status (single, married, divorced, widowed), and number of children. Social details: social affiliation (Litvak, Hasidic, Sephardic), and religious conservatism level (on a scale of 1 – very pious to 5 – modern). Professional details: seniority (in years), education (no education, certified teacher, equivalent degree, bachelor’s degree, master’s degree), role in school (managerial role, school counselor, coordinator, homeroom teacher, subject teacher), and non-formal education (yes, no). Organizational details: legal status of the school (petor, recognized unofficial, Bnei Yosef, Chinuch Atzmayi, Mamach, Mamad).

Data analysis

SPSS 28 was used for analyzing the data. First, a factor analysis was performed to define the 4Cs in the perception of 21^st-century skills questionnaire. To validate the internal structure of the questionnaire, an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted. The extraction method used was Principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation and Kaiser Normalization, chosen to maximize the variance of the squared loadings. The suitability of the data for factor analysis was assessed using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity.

Next, a reliability analysis of Cronbach’s Alpha was conducted, accompanied by descriptive statistics. To examine the research hypotheses, two tests were performed. First, Pearson correlation tests were conducted, followed by a Steiger Z test to evaluate connections and the differences between them. Finally, linear regression tests were performed out to test variance.

Results

Preliminary results

Descriptive statistics of teachers’ attitudes toward non-formal education and their perceptions of 21^st-century skills are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of the research variables.

Table 2 shows that teachers’ attitudes toward non-formal education and the component of creativity in the perception of 21^st-century skills received moderate scores (third quartile), while communication, collaboration, and critical thinking received high scores (fourth quartile).

In the context of preliminary analysis the relationship between the 4Cs as part of 21^st-century skills and demographic characteristics were tested using Pearson correlation tests, independent sample t-test and ANOVA tests. Results are presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Table 3. Correlation between perceptions of the 4Cs of the 21^st-century skills and demographic variables.

Table 3 shows that most demographic variables are not significantly correlated with the 4Cs. The only significant relationships were found between teachers’ age and perceptions of critical thinking and creativity. There were no significant differences with regard to gender [communication: t(236) = −1.52, p = NS; collaboration: t(236) = −1.21, p = NS; critical thinking: t(236) = 0.09, p = NS; creativity: t(236) = −0.89, p = NS)] education in the field of non-formal education [communication: t(236) = −0.54, p = NS; collaboration: t(236) = 0.62, p = NS; critical thinking: t(236) = −0.70, p = NS; creativity: t(236) = −0.22, p = NS)] marital status [communication: F(3,234) = 0.60, p = NS; collaboration: F(3,234) = 0.44, p = NS; critical thinking: F(3,234) = 0.74, p = NS; creativity: F(3,234) = 0.30, p = NS] or with regard to school type [communication: F(3,234) = 0.32, p = NS; collaboration: F(3,234) = 0.66, p = NS; critical thinking: F(3,234) = 0.48, p = NS; creativity: F(3,234) = 0.50, p = NS].

Main results

To examine the research hypotheses regarding the contribution of teachers’ attitudes toward non-formal education to their perception of 21^st-century skills, two paths of analysis were performed. One path focused on Pearson correlations between teachers’ attitudes toward non-formal education and each component of the perception of 21^st-century skills (communication, collaboration, critical thinking, creativity), followed by the Steiger Z test to explore if there are significant differences between the correlations found. Results are presented in Table 4. The second path performed a linear regression analysis, which provides information regarding explained variance of each 21^st-century skill component. Results are presented in Table 5.

Table 4

Table 4. Correlations between teachers’ perception of non-formal education and perceptions of 21^st-century skills components.

Table 5

Table 5. Linear regression—the relationship between perception of non-formal education and perceptions of the 4Cs within 21^st-century skills.

Table 4 shows significant positive correlations were found between perceptions of non-formal education (NF) and the four components of 21^st-century skills. To examine whether the differences among these correlations were statistically significant, a comparison of dependent correlations was conducted using the Meng et al. (1992) procedure. The results indicated that the correlation between non-formal education and communication was significantly stronger than the correlation between non-formal education and creativity, with a difference of 0.062 (95% CI_{diff} [0.005, 0.119], Z = 2.15, p = 0.03). Additionally, the difference was marginally significant compared to critical thinking, with a difference of 0.059 (95% CI_{diff} [0.001, 0.117], Z = 1.99, p = 0.047). Differences between the remaining correlations were not statistically significant.

To examine the variance explanation of teachers’ perception of the 21^st-century skills components, linear regressions analyses were performed, and the results are presented in Table 5.

Table 5 shows that perceptions of non-formal education are related to all 4Cs, supporting all research hypotheses. The strongest relationship was for communication skills, where perception of non-formal education explains 23% of the variance. Collaboration was the second strongest relationship, where perception of non-formal education explains 20% of the variance. Critical thinking is third, where perception of non-formal education explains 18% of the variance. Creativity demonstrated the weakest relationship, where perception of non-formal education explains only 17% of the variance.

Discussion

This study examined the relationship between ultra-Orthodox teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education and their perceptions of 21^st-century skills, within the social reality of a segregated, religious, collectivist community that functions exist in the larger secular individualistic majority society (Chassida and Trachtengot, 2023). The rapid and continuous growth of this community makes it an important sector in Israeli society and increases the pressure to adapt its education system in accordance with modern needs (Avidov-Ungar and Busharian, 2023). The interaction between the Ministry of Education and the ultra-Orthodox community is challenged by political, professional, and cultural barriers that are difficult to resolve (Ben David-Hadar, 2016). However, there is evidence that a few changes have been taking place in the ultra-Orthodox education system over the past few years (Katzir and Perry-Hazan, 2024; Westerlund et al., 2021).

The findings point to a positive correlation between perceptions of 21^st-century skills and perceptions of non-formal education. These results align with past research conducted in collectivist cultural contexts: Implementation of 21^st-century skills was highly important to non-formal education institutions in Indonesia, although their practical implementation encountered difficulties (Prasetyo et al., 2021). In research carried out in Pakistan (Jabeen et al., 2024), non-formal education was found to nurture the development of communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity – the 4Cs. Turkish teachers who took part in non-formal STEM training program used more 21^st-century skills in their work (Çevik et al., 2024). The results suggest that the ability to adapt one’s perceptions of education and view non-formal education as an admissible or even educational goal can encourage ultra-Orthodox teachers to recognize the importance of developing 21^st-century skills despite the cultural challenges they may create.

The findings suggest that adopting a positive perception of non-formal education may enable ultra-Orthodox teachers to recognize the importance of developing 21^st-century skills, despite the cultural tensions these skills may create. The differential explanatory power of non-formal education across the four skill domains further reflects cultural norms. Communication skills showed the strongest association, consistent with the community’s emphasis on social support, knowledge sharing, and spiritual engagement (Klonover et al., 2023; Malovicki-Yaffe, 2020; Taragin-Zeller et al., 2022). In contrast, creativity showed the weakest association, likely due to its perceived threat to community norms, particularly in relation to technology and innovation (Taragin-Zeller and Kessler, 2021).

The second part of the study examined the explanatory force of teachers’ perceptions of non-formal education for each of the 4Cs, presuming that a positive perception of non-formal education combined with social norms regarding each of the 4Cs would create a differential association with higher explanation for skills that are accepted in the ultra-Orthodox community, and with lower explanation for skills perceived as culturally conflictual. Accordingly, the results support a higher explanatory value of communication skills, which are a basic part of the community practice as part of its supportive nature (Klonover et al., 2023), knowledge sharing (Taragin-Zeller et al., 2022), and spiritual role (Malovicki-Yaffe, 2020). The results show lower explanatory value of creativity skills, which in terms of technology is threatening to ultra-Orthodox community norms (Taragin-Zeller and Kessler, 2021). The avoidance of creativity development is also seen among ultra-Orthodox students in higher education, who demonstrate lower levels of flexibility and fluency than the general population of students (Margaliot and Kreitler, 2020). This explanation is tentative and based on logic and insights from the literature, not on in-depth comparison with other groups. It is recommended that further research should expand and further the examination of the cultural aspects of these variables in more depth.

While teachers’ perception and engagement with 21^st-century skills receive substantial academic attention (Anagün, 2018; Tican and Deniz, 2019), research regarding the relationship between non-formal education and perceptions of 21^st-century skill is limited (Jabeen et al., 2024). Despite the narrow research scope, there seems to be globalized cross-cultural interest in this relationship. For example, the Asia Society, through a professional learning community from North America and Asia, developed a universal 21^st-century skills development program for students. This program is based on the System-Building Approaches, and stresses the importance of non-formal education globally (Russell, 2016).

Research conducted in the United States showed that students characterized non-formal learning as activity in which the 4Cs of 21^st-century skills are involved. Non-formal learning engaged students in collaborative work. It helped them employ critical thinking skills and fostered productivity, although it did not influence creativity. Furthermore, it exposed aspects of students’ leadership expressed in problem-solving skills, responsibility and to some extent flexibility (Moyer, 2016). In Tanzania, teachers in non-formal education centers were not successful in developing 21^st-century skills in their students. It appears that these teachers emphasized academic performance and cognitive skills, which do not encourage collaboration, communication, critical thinking, or creativity (Michael, 2022). In Egypt non-formal education supports development of 21^st-century skills particularly in relation to the labor market. Yet in recent years personal empowerment has also become a developed skill that contributes to aspects of 21^st-century skills such as self-awareness, self-efficacy, and social competency (Abdelhamid, 2024).

These examples highlight the cross-cultural importance of the issue, implying that culture shapes the relationship between non-formal education and perceptions of 21^st-century skills. The findings point to the contribution of segregated collectivist culture to this relationship, presenting a norm-adjusted adaptation process that uses non-formal education especially for strengthening 21^st-century skills that align with ultra-Orthodox culture. It is also worth noting the study’s methodological contribution. Previous studies, as stated earlier, relied on a qualitative approach to examine the issue, while the current research employed a quantitative design, enabling a more accurate cultural comparison.

In conclusion, the main finding of this study indicates that the ability to adopt a non-formal education perspective, which requires flexibility and openness to change in the traditional ultra-Orthodox education system, fosters development of positive perceptions of 21^st-century skills in this community. The ultra-Orthodox education system is one of its key communal institutions for preserving cultural values, norms, and practices. The rejection of modernity as a core value (Friedman, 1991) challenges the integration of all 21^st-century skills and non-formal education. This study may indicate that this growing community could find ways to improve its education system and prepare its students for future integration into the workforce by adapting concepts and methods that are developed in Western individualistic cultures. This adaptation is directed by cultural norms that do not conflict with these concepts and can be easily adapted in a culturally adjusted manner.

This study has a number of limitations. One is that the research sample used was convenience sampling rather than random sampling, which introduces selection bias and difficulty in generalizing the finding for all ultra-Orthodox teachers. Future research should employ random sampling, despite the difficulty of doing so given the challenges in the structural nature of the ultra-Orthodox education system and its resistance to cooperating with academic institutions. Further, the research relied on perceptional tools to measure teachers’ perceptions instead of the actual presentation of non-formal education and implementation of 21^st-century skills among the student population. Future research should enter ultra-Orthodox educational institutions and explore the actual practice of non-formal education and 21^st-century skills. The problem of participant bias is also a challenge for this research. The participants desire to please the researcher, especially in a collectivist culture that is accustomed to conformity, may influence the responses. An examination of the variables in practice may allow for a more accurate reflection of reality.

Some practical implementation possibilities can be drawn from this study. First, the Ministry of Education should promote awareness and knowledge of both subjects in teachers’ training programs in ultra-Orthodox seminars for female teachers and training institutions for male teachers. Second, the Ministry of Education should engage in dialogue with ultra-Orthodox educators and heads of institutions in order to shape culturally-sensitive definitions of these concepts and encourage greater acceptance of them. Ultra-Orthodox educators themselves should frame non-formal education and 21^st-century skills as communal goals that will contribute to the community as a whole and specifically to the education system.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Mira Karnieli Oranim Education College. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

AB: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. LC: Funding acquisition, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. SR: Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The research was supported by the MOFET institute grant for applied research in education.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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