Centipede predation on vertebrates: a review with the first bat case from Asia

Abstract

Centipedes (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha), long regarded as generalist arthropod predators, are increasingly recognized for their capacity to subdue and consume small vertebrates. This review synthesizes over a century of published accounts documenting centipede predation on amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and occasionally fish, emphasizing the ecological breadth, behavioral strategies, and taxonomic diversity of both predators and prey. Notable cases include Scolopendra gigantea preying on bats in Venezuelan caves, Scolopendra subspinipes capturing snakes in urban environments, and Cormocephalus coynei exerting top-down control on seabird populations on predator-free islands. We also present the first confirmed case of bat predation by a centipede in Asia, where a Rhysida species was observed consuming a Pipistrellus bat in a fig tree hollow in West Bengal, India. This observation expands the known biogeography and ecological context of vertebrate predation by centipedes. Our synthesis highlights the underappreciated role of scolopendrid centipedes as mid-level predators capable of influencing small vertebrate populations, particularly in resource-limited or insular ecosystems, and calls for a re-evaluation of their functional position within terrestrial food webs.

1 Introduction

Predation is a central ecological force shaping trophic dynamics, influencing population regulation, species distributions, and evolutionary trajectories (Begon et al., 2006). While classical food web models often depict vertebrates preying upon invertebrates, an emerging body of literature emphasizes the importance of reverse trophic interactions where invertebrates act as predators of vertebrates (Nyffeler and Knörnschild, 2013; Nyffeler and Gibbons, 2022).

Across a range of taxa including arachnids, insects, myriapods, and crustaceans, invertebrates have been documented preying on vertebrate animals in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems (McCormick and Polis, 1982; Formanowicz and Bradley, 1987; Mori and Ohba, 2004; Nyffeler and Knörnschild, 2013; Valdez, 2020; Nyffeler and Gibbons, 2022; etc.). Among invertebrate predators, centipedes (class Chilopoda) represent a particularly intriguing and underappreciated group capable of subduing vertebrate prey (Undheim and King, 2011; Dugon and Arthur, 2012; Clark, 1979). Members of the order Scolopendromorpha, especially within the genus Scolopendra, are large, nocturnal, and venomous generalists that use modified forelegs (forcipules) to inject venom, immobilize prey, and initiate extra-oral digestion (Undheim and King, 2011; Dugon and Arthur, 2012). Although their primary diet consists of arthropods, accumulating evidence reveals that scolopendrid centipedes frequently prey on small vertebrates across diverse environments (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1968; Forti et al., 2007; Bauer, 1990; Molinari et al., 2005; Srbek-Araujo et al., 2012, etc.).

These interactions between centipede and vertebrate are often overlooked due to the secretive and nocturnal habits of centipedes, yet they may exert significant top-down pressures on small vertebrate populations, particularly in resource-limited habitats or insular ecosystems (Halpin et al., 2021). Unlike most terrestrial invertebrates, large scolopendrid centipedes are capable of overpowering prey exceeding their own body mass (Dugon and Arthur, 2012). This functional capacity positions them uniquely in terrestrial food webs, where they may occupy mid-level predator niches and influence vertebrate community composition. Their role in nutrient transfer and energy flow, especially in tropical and subtropical regions, is only beginning to be understood (Nyffeler and Gibbons, 2022).

This review synthesizes over a century of records on centipede predation on vertebrates, emphasizing the diversity of prey, attack strategies, ecological contexts, and the evolutionary implications of such interactions. By integrating published literature and novel observations, including the first documented case of bat predation by a centipede in Asia, we aim to expand the ecological narrative surrounding centipedes and highlight their role as key, albeit cryptic, predators of vertebrates.

2 Literature review

2.1 Overview of invertebrate-driven vertebrate mortality

A diverse array of invertebrates have been documented preying on vertebrates, often in ecologically impactful ways. For example, odonate larvae (dragonfly nymphs) are major predators of amphibian larvae and exert strong selective pressures on anuran life history traits (Morin, 1983; McCollum and Leimberger, 1997). In tropical ecosystems, army ants (Eciton burchellii) are known to kill and consume nestling birds and small reptiles during raids (Rettenmeyer et al., 2011). Similarly, wasps and spiders have been recorded depredating avian nestlings (Henriques, 1998; Nyffeler and Knörnschild, 2013).

These interactions are not merely incidental; they contribute significantly to mortality regimes and influence prey behavior and habitat use (Sih et al., 1998; Preisser et al., 2005). Importantly, they underscore the need to reassess traditional trophic hierarchies and recognize the diverse roles of invertebrates as apex or mesopredators in certain ecological contexts (Nyffeler and Birkhofer, 2017).

2.2 Centipede predation on amphibians

Predation events of centipedes have been documented across a range of amphibian taxa. In the Caribbean, Scolopendra alternans was observed attacking and consuming the toxic cane toad (Rhinella marina), a species known for its chemical defenses (Carpenter and Gillingham, 1984). This highlights the centipede’s resistance or indifference to amphibian toxins in some cases. Similarly, in tropical Australia, native centipedes (Ethmostigmus rubripes) have been reported killing invasive cane toads, indicating a remarkable reversal of expected predator–prey dynamics (Pomeroy et al., 2021). In Brazil’s Atlantic Forest, Otostigmus tibialis has been recorded preying on the small arboreal tree frog Dendropsophus elegans, showcasing centipede predation within vertical forest strata (Forti et al., 2007). These observations provide crucial insights into centipedes as opportunistic and generalist predators capable of subduing toxic or agile amphibian prey across diverse ecosystems.

Although quantitative studies on the frequency and ecological impact of centipede-amphibian interactions are lacking, the available evidence suggests that centipedes play a significant, if under-recognized, role in amphibian mortality particularly among juveniles and small-bodied species.

2.3 Centipede predation on reptiles

Reptilian prey, especially small lizards and snakes, form a notable component of centipede diets. Species like Cormocephalus coynei, Scolopendra viridicornis and Scolopendra subspinipes have been recorded attacking geckos, skinks, and colubrids using venom injection and powerful mechanical restraint (Halpin et al., 2021; Vieira et al., 2021; Deb et al., 2023). These interactions occurred in microhabitats such as leaf litter, under logs, and within rock crevices, where reptiles are abundant and centipedes can ambush effectively.

Multiple field observations illustrate the breadth of reptilian predation. In India, Scolopendra hardwickei has been reported preying on Oligodon taeniolatus, a small snake (Smart et al., 2010), while in Thailand’s Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve, Scolopendra dawydoffi consumed Sibynophis triangularis (Chiacchio et al., 2017). In the Andaman Islands, S. dehaani was documented subduing Lycodon hypsirhinoides in forest habitats (Vazifdar et al., 2021), and Lycodon zawi in urban Guwahati (Deb et al., 2023), suggesting adaptability to varied landscapes.

In urban Singapore, Scolopendra subspinipes was recorded preying on multiple fossorial snakes such as Calamaria schlegeli, Calamaria pavimentata, and Pseudorabdion longiceps within green spaces embedded in city infrastructure (Pwa et al., 2023). Elsewhere, Scolopendra gigantea has been observed attacking Leptodeira bakeri, a colubrid snake (Goessling et al., 2012; van Buurt and Dilrosun, 2017). Additionally, Scolopendra sp. captured Calliophis melanurus, a venomous elapid, in Mumbai’s rocky outcrops (Mirza and Ahmed, 2009), indicating their ability to handle dangerous prey.

These accounts underscore the ecological versatility of large centipedes and their ability to exploit a wide range of reptilian prey across diverse habitats, from pristine forests and islands to anthropogenic settings such as cities and agricultural margins.

2.4 Centipede predation on birds and fish

Although uncommon, centipede predation on birds is best exemplified by Cormocephalus coynei on Phillip Island, Norfolk Island, Australia where it functions as a top terrestrial predator in the absence of mammals. This species preys on thousands of black-winged petrel (Pterodroma nigripennis) chicks annually by entering their burrows and using venom to subdue them (Halpin et al., 2021). Cormocephalus coynei also scavenges regurgitated marine fish from seabirds, demonstrating notable dietary flexibility (Halpin et al., 2021).

Historical reports suggest other Scolopendra species may occasionally prey on small birds (Cumming, 1903; Cloudsley-Thompson, 1968), though such accounts lack detailed verification. While active predation on fish has not been documented, scavenging behaviors particularly in island or predator-limited ecosystems reveal the trophic adaptability of some centipedes. These interactions challenge conventional views of invertebrate predators and warrant further ecological investigation.

2.5 Centipede predation on mammals

Mammalian predation by centipedes, particularly involving bats, is well-documented for Scolopendra gigantea in Venezuelan caves, where it preys on molossid and mormoopid bats (Molinari et al., 2005). Similar predation events involving Scolopendra viridicornis have been reported in Brazil (Srbek-Araujo et al., 2012; Noronha et al., 2015). In the United States, Scolopendra heros has been observed preying on Eptesicus fuscus in rock crevices in Texas (Lindley et al., 2017). In addition to bats, rodents have also been recorded as prey. For instance, Scolopendra galapagoensis has been observed preying upon the Galápagos rice rat Oryzomys bauri (= Aegialomys galapagoensis) (Clark, 1979), and unidentified rodents have been found in the diet of other large scolopendrid centipedes (Shugg, 1961). These observations expand the known mammalian prey base of centipedes and highlight their role as opportunistic vertebrate predators. The behavioral and ecological implications of such predation particularly concerning roost site selection, foraging behavior, and predator avoidance remain poorly studied but are likely to be significant.

3 Case study: centipede predation on a bat, a new record from Asia

Recently, a team of scientists of Zoological Survey of India carried out a faunal survey in the dry tropical forests of West Bengal, India. The study area, Nakpur a village situated in the Nalhati Block of Birbhum district of West Bengal state in India (24.295684°N, 88.011694°E) which is primarily occupied by crop agricultural fields. During the insect survey in the study area, a centipede was observed preying on a bat in the hollow of a Sacred Fig (Ficus religiosa) tree at 20:30 h on 19 June 2024. This rare interaction was captured through photographs (Figure 1) and video (Supplementary material) to provide significant documentation. The centipede was identified as a species belonging to the genus Rhysida (Chilopoda: Scolopendromorpha: Scolopendridae), based on its head, dorsal body, ultimate legs and leg color, body profile (Figure 1a), and spiracle formula one of the diagnostic characters of the genus against other scolopendrids (Joshi et al., 2020; Sureshan, 2024; Bonato et al., 2025), while the bat was identified as a species belonging to genus Pipistrellus (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) due to its small size (≈ 6 cm), body shape, and internarial groove (Figure 1b) (Bates and Harrison, 1997; Sharma et al., 2024). Due to logistical constraints in the field and the non-invasive nature of the observation, molecular confirmation of species identity was not feasible. Both the bat and centipede were observed at the lower part of the tree, approximately 5 feet above the ground, and the tree was home to the Indian flying fox (Pteropus medius), spotted house gecko (Hemidactylus parvimaculatus), Asian common toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus), and bee nests. The weather during this observation was warm and humid, reaching a high of around 36°C (96.8°F)- West Bengal’s monsoon season. The centipede was notably longer than the bat (≈ 10 cm). The centipede began to feed on the bat’s wing membrane (Figure 1c) and proceeding deeper into the body of the bat (Figure 1d) while it was still alive (Figures 1c, e). The authors noted that the predatory actions occurred after the bat had been immobilized, yet its head continued moving while the centipede was feeding. After capturing a one-minute video and taking some photos, the researchers stepped back from the spot to prevent disrupting the centipede’s hunting behavior.

Figure 1

4 Discussion

Previous studies (Molinari et al., 2005; Srbek-Araujo et al., 2012; Noronha et al., 2015; Lindley et al., 2017) have reported bat predation by Scolopendra species in the Americas, mainly in caves and artificial structures. This new record suggests that arboreal predation on bats by centipedes may be more widespread than previously thought.

Our analysis on centipede predation on vertebrate reveals a clear taxonomic bias in centipede predation towards reptiles, particularly snakes (Table 1; Figure 2). Among the 16 centipede species with documented vertebrate predation, reptiles constitute the most frequently reported prey class. This trend is especially evident in large-bodied Scolopendra species such as Scolopendra subspinipes, Scolopendra gigantea, and Scolopendra heros, which have been recorded subduing snakes often comparable to their own size (Valdez, 2020; Easterla, 1975; van Buurt and Dilrosun, 2017; Pwa et al., 2023). The elongated, limbless morphology of snakes may facilitate subjugation and consumption by centipedes using their powerful forcipules and envenomation tactics (Lewis, 1981). Moreover, snakes often inhabit microhabitats also frequented by centipedes such as forest floors, under logs, or leaf litter thereby increasing encounter rates. This dietary inclination suggests that scolopendrid centipedes, though generalist predators, may exert predatory pressure on certain reptile populations, especially in insular or disturbed ecosystems where snakes are among the few available vertebrate prey.

Table 1

Centipede predator species	Vertebrate prey species	Common name	Habitat	Location	Setting	Reference
	Amphibians
Ethmostigmus rubripes	Rhinella marina	Cane toad	—	Australia	Field	Pomeroy et al. (2021)
Otostigmus tibialis	Dendropsophus elegans	Elegant forest tree frog	Forest	São Miguel Arcanjo, Brazil	Field	Forti et al. (2007)
Scolopendra alternans	Rhinella marina	Cane toad	—	Caribbean (not specified)	Field	Carpenter and Gillingham (1984)
Scolopendra sp.	Kaloula pulchra	Banded bullfrog	Forest	Thailand	Field	Hodges and Goodyear (2021)
	Scinax fuscovarius	Fuscous-blotched treefrog	Forest	Brazil	Field	Folly et al. (2019)
	Reptiles
Cormocephalus coynei	Oligosoma lichenigera	Lord Howe Island skink	Island	Phillip Island, Norfolk Island, Australia	Field	Halpin et al. (2021)
	Christinus guentheri	Günther’s island gecko
Cormocephalus sp.	Oedura lesueurii	Lesueur’s gecko	Rock crevices	Australia	Field	Pike et al. (2010)
Scolopendra cingulata	Dalmatolacerta oxycephala	Sharp-snouted rock lizard	Rocky area	Korčula Island, Croatia	Field	Zimić and Jelić (2014)
Scolopendra dawydoffi	Sibynophis triangularis	Triangulate collared snake	Biosphere reserve	Sakaerat, Thailand	Field	Chiacchio et al. (2017)
Scolopendra dehaani	Lycodon hypsirhinoides	Andaman wolf snake	Forest	Andaman Islands	Field	Vazifdar et al. (2021)
	Lycodon zawi	Zaw’s wolf snake	Urban	Guwahati, India	Field	Deb et al. (2023)
Scolopendra galapagoensis	Pseudalsophis biserialis	Galápagos racer	Island	Galápagos Islands	Field	Ortiz-Catedral et al. (2021)
Scolopendra gigantea	Leptodeira bakeri	Baker’s cat-eyed snake	—	Aruba	Field	Goessling et al. (2012); van Buurt and Dilrosun (2017)
Scolopendra hardwickei	Oligodon taeniolatus	Streaked Kukri snake	—	India	Field	Smart et al. (2010)
Scolopendra heros	Rhinocheilus lecontei	Long-nosed snake	Desert	Texas, USA	Field	Easterla (1975)
Scolopendra sp.	Ameivula ocellifera	Spix’s whiptail lizard	Natural monument area	Grota do Angico, Sergipe, Brazil	Field	Moura et al. (2015)
	Calliophis melanurus	Slender coral snake	Rock crevices	Mumbai, India	Field	Mirza and Ahmed (2009)
Scolopendra spinosissima	Hemibungarus mcclungi	McClung’s Philippine coral snake	—	Luzon Island, Philippines	Field	Acuña et al. (2021)
Scolopendra subspinipes	Calamaria pavimentata	Collared reed snake	Urban greenery	Singapore	Field	Pwa et al. (2023)
	Calamaria schlegeli	Red-headed reed snake
	Pseudorabdion longiceps	Dwarf reed snake
Scolopendra viridicornis	Gymnodactylus geckoides	Naked-toed gecko	Semiarid environment	Northeastern Brazil	Field	Vieira et al. (2021)
Scolopendra morsitans	Tympanocryptis tetraporophora	Eyrean earless dragon	Road	Australia	Field	McFadden and McFadden (2025)
	Birds
Cormocephalus coynei	Pterodroma nigripennis	Black-winged petrel (Nestlings)	Island	Phillip Island, Norfolk Island, Australia	Field	Halpin et al. (2021)
Scolopendra sp.	Bird	Unidentified bird	—	Not specified	Field	Cumming (1903)
	Bird	Unidentified bird	—	Not specified	Field	Cloudsley-Thompson (1968)
	Bird	Unidentified bird	—	Not specified	Field	Anonymous (1985)
	Mammals
Rhysida sp.	Pipistrellus sp.	Bat	Tree hollow	India	Field	This study
Scolopendra galapagoensis	Oryzomys bauri (= Aegialomys galapagoensis)	Galápagos rice rat	Island	Galápagos Islands, Ecuador	Field	Clark (1979)
Scolopendra gigantea	Mormoops megalophylla	Ghost-faced bat	Caves	Venezuela	Field	Molinari et al. (2005)
	Lionycteris curasoae	Southern long-nosed bat
	Pteronotus davyi	Davy’s naked-backed bat
Scolopendra heros	Eptesicus fuscus	Big brown bat	Rock crevices	Texas	Field	Lindley et al. (2017)
Scolopendra sp.	Rodent	Unidentified rodent	—	Not specified	Field	Shugg (1961)
Scolopendra subspinipes	Mus musculus	House mouse	—	China	Experiment	Luo et al. (2018)
Scolopendra viridicornis	Eptesicus furinalis	Argentine brown bat	Mosaic floor	Southeastern Brazil	Field	Srbek-Araujo et al. (2012)
	Molossus molossus	Velvety free-tailed bat	Roof	Brazil	Field	Noronha et al. (2015)
	Fishes
Cormocephalus coynei	Marine fishes from seabird regurgitates	Fish	Coastal	Phillip Island, Norfolk Island, Australia	Field	Halpin et al. (2021)

Documented instances of centipede predators and their vertebrate prey species (amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and fishes).

Figure 2

5 Conclusion

Vertebrate predation by centipedes, though often overlooked, is neither rare nor ecologically insignificant. Our review reveals that large scolopendrid centipedes occupy a unique trophic niche, with documented ability to subdue vertebrate prey ranging from amphibians and reptiles to birds and mammals across diverse habitats worldwide. The new record from India involving a Rhysida centipede feeding on a live bat in an arboreal setting represents the first such case from Asia and challenges prior assumptions that such interactions are confined to cave or ground environments. Collectively, these findings underscore the ecological versatility, behavioral sophistication, and predatory impact of scolopendrid centipedes. Future research should prioritize quantitative assessments of their predation rates, prey selection, and ecological consequences, especially in tropical and subtropical ecosystems where they may serve as cryptic yet influential components of vertebrate mortality regimes.

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