Floristic composition, life history traits and phytogeographic distribution of forest vegetation in the Western Himalaya

Introduction

Floristic diversity is an important element of ecosystems (Hua et al., 2022). This diversity includes the plant species diversity of a particular area representing the local flora of a given area (Qian et al., 2021). Taxonomy is concerned with their identification and classification of species (Barkley et al., 2004). Floristic and taxonomic studies provide efficient information about different aspects of an ecosystem, including nomenclature, distribution, ecology and utility of plant species of an area (Grime et al., 2014; Haq et al., 2022d). While information on plants of many regions has long been available online via checklists (Safidkon et al., 2003), comprehensive floristic studies are still necessary to document the whole plant diversity of any geographic region (Noss, 1983). Lack of such studies strongly limits the scientific inquiry into plants (Kier et al., 2005), and is needed to ultimately understand how plant communities are structured and distributed.

Among the various ecological attributes of plant communities, floristic composition and ecological diversity are the most important ones that are influenced by a variety of biotic and abiotic factors (Khan et al., 2018; Solefack et al., 2018). The understanding of linkages among plants diversity and its ecological functions is critical for understanding the adjustment of plant communities, and how they adopt toward specific habitats (Rahman et al., 2019a; Altaf et al., 2022). Lifeform and habit are the two important physiognomic features that are being widely used while investigating vegetation (Haq et al., 2019). Studying functional plant traits of a given region is an important tool that helps in understanding the relationship between environmental variables and plant community structure and distribution, ultimately revealing the biological functions of individual species in a community (Vakhlamova et al., 2016).

The Himalayan Mountain Range is a prominent biogeographic ecoregion that shows great variation in topography and climate, and thus harbors significant plant diversity (Olson et al., 2001). This mountain ecosystem has been recognized as a global biodiversity hotspot due to its significant biodiversity and huge endemism (Myers et al., 2000). The Kashmir Himalaya, part of Indian Himalayan Region, has been considered as a promising floristic region with high endemism (Mahar et al., 2009). Nonetheless, many remote areas of this biodiversity-rich region have not received much attention as far as floristic and ecological investigations are concerned, which is especially the case of remote mountains region in Kashmir Himalayas. The capability and productivity of the Himalayan forest ecosystem have decreased as a result of numerous stressors, including anthropogenic factors (such as over-exploitation of forest resources and the spread of invasive species), environmental (climate, slope, soil), fire incidences, and declining biological diversity (Haq et al., 2020). Floristic and ecological studies are crucial to advancing our understanding of the distribution and composition of plant communities in biodiversity hotspots. It is crucial and most effective to record qualitative forest vegetation parameters in order to preserve floristic diversity in the future and utilize biological resources sustainably. Keeping this in view, we focused on the following objectives: (i) to record the floristic composition of the vegetation in the region. (ii) What are the patterns of the emergent ecological traits groups in the flora in this region (iii) to find out the contribution of native and alien elements in the region vegetation and (iv) to find out the forest species pool shows habitat filtering in the region.

Given the ecological and economic significance of the forest vegetation under consideration, the findings of this study can guide sustainable biodiversity management and habitat restoration, particularly in invaded habitats in this Himalayan region, with global implications.

Materials and methods

Research area

The study area one of the remotest Tehsil of District Bandipore, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The Gurez valley is situated in the high-altitude Kashmir Himalaya, about 86 kms from Bandipore and 146 kms from the regions summer capital (Srinagar) (Figure 1). The Gurez valley is at an altitude of ranges from 2,400 to 3,500 masl and is mostly inhabited by Pahari and Gujjar tribes. The study area includes fifteen Panchayats (village administrative units) with about 30,000 inhabitants. Dawar is known as the main town in the area. Due to heavy snowfall (approx. 1.5–1.8 m), the area remains disconnected from the rest of the region for about 6 months a year, as Razdan Pass is completely closed in the winter. It has a dry and mild climate. The valley is vital for wildlife tourism because it is surrounded by high mountains and steep gorges that are drained by the Kishanganga River. It also supports a variety of vegetation, dense forests, and a wealth of species.

FIGURE 1

Figure 1. Map of study area (A) India (B) Jammu and Kashmir (C) Bandipora district and point showing the Gurez Valley in the Kashmir Himalaya, India (generated using ArcGIS version,10.5).

Field survey

Frequent surveys were conducted to obtain a better understanding of the research area and field data were collected during in various expeditions 2019–2021. Sites for the floristic studies were chosen using a random sampling technique to guarantee that plant species from various habitats had an equal chance of being sampled. The quadrat method was used to record floristic composition and functional characteristics to improve vegetation documentation (Haq et al., 2020). We set up 36 0.1 ha plots for field sampling across different habitats in the study area. Within each 0.1 ha plot, two 5 m² plots were placed in opposite corners estimate shrub diversity. For the herbaceous layer, 5 plots of size 1 m² were laid (4 in each corner 0.1 ha plot and one in the center). In total, 32 plots for trees, 64 (2 plots × 32 = 64) plots for shrubs and 160 (5 plots × 32 = 160) plots for herbs were sampled in the present study. Field data about each specimen of plant material was meticulously recorded during field studies. In order to serve as herbarium voucher specimens, plant specimens were collected from the field, identified using taxonomic literature, and then authenticated by comparing the plant specimens with material in the KASH herbarium. Ecological traits (like Raunkiaer’s life-form, plant habit, phyto-geographical, life span) of each species were recorded during sampling, following Raunkiaer (1934), and Pérez-Harguindeguy et al. (2016). Furthermore, habitat characteristics of each plant species were categorized as Dry slope (DS), Moist places (MP), Natural forest (FR), Shady places (SP), Riparian vegetation (RV), Rock crevice (RC), Roadside (RS), Crop fields (CF), Vegetable garden (VG) (Plate 1). The range of native phyto-geographically reported plant specimens was acquired by using secondary sources like manuals, Flora and specified internet web pages (GRIN: Germplasm Resource Information Network).¹ Based on the available data, all plant specimens were categorized into native and exotic species.

PLATE 1

Plate 1. Representation of different habitats in the study area.

Data analysis

To investigate the relationships between ecological variables and plant compositions, heat map and clustering analysis were employed (Rahman et al., 2019a; Haq et al., 2021d). The heat map displayed the distribution of species using presence/absence data, and the clustering algorithm grouped species with similar habitat categories. The Sørensen (1948) similarity coefficient based on presence/absence data was used to identify significant differences among different habitat types and microclimatic similarities (Dalirsefat et al., 2009). In order to identify hypothetical variables (components) that explain the majority of the variance in our multidimensional data, Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) was utilized. The contribution of various Raunkiaer’s life forms was visualized using chord diagrams generated with the circlize package (Gu et al., 2014). Subsequently, we computed three diversity indices, namely, species richness, Shannon and Simpson, based on presence/absence of species for all habitats, and all plots and analyses were performed using R software version 4.0.0 (R Core Team, 2020).

Results

Floristic composition and distribution

Based on the present investigation, 155 plant species from 120 genera and 49 families were reported in the current study area (Table 1). The distribution of the species among the 49 families was unequal; just 7 families held half of the species, while 42 families held the other half. 23 families were monotypic (Figure 2). The top five plant families were Asteraceae (19 species, or 12% of all species), Rosaceae (17 species, or 11% of all species), Lamiaceae (15 species, or 10%), Ranunculaceae (10 species, or 6%), and Apiaceae (8 species, or 5%) (Table 1).

TABLE 1

Table 1. Floristic composition and life span traits of the forest vegetation in Gurez Valley of Kashmir Himalaya, India.

FIGURE 2

Figure 2. Species- family relationship of documented species in the study area.

Species distribution among growth form types

In the current study, the highest number of plant species (111) were herbaceous plants (72% of all species), followed by 21 tree species (13%), 15 shrubs (10%), four climbers (3%), and four sub-shrubs (2%) (Table 1). Most of the tree species growing in the valley were deciduous (e.g., Aesculus indica, Acer caesium, Betula utilis, Celtis australis, Prunus armeniaca, Prunus cornuta, Populus nigra, and Ulmus villosa). A few coniferous tree species (e.g., Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Picea smithiana, Pinus wallichiana, and Taxus wallichiana) were also reported. Shrubs included Rosa webbiana, Berberis lyceum, Rubus ulmifolius, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, and Indigofera heterantha. Important medicinal herbs reported from the valley were Ajuga parviflora, Bergenia ciliate, Delphinium roylei, Gentiana kurroo, Heracleum candicans, Phytolacca acinosa, Saussurea costus, Taraxacum officinale, and Trillium govanianum (Table 1). The representative plants species documented in the different habitats of the study area are shown in Plate 2.

PLATE 2

Plate 2. Representative plant species growing in different habitats of the study area.

Species distribution among life-form traits

About 35% of the species (54 species) were therophytes which constituted the dominant life form, followed by 29 species of hemicryptophytes (19%), chamaephytes and geophytes with 15 species each (10%), megaphanerophytes with 13 species (8%), nanophanerophytes with 12 species (8%), cryptophytes and mesophanerophytes with 7 species each (4%), microphanerophytes with 2 species (1%), and parasitic forms with a single species (1%) (Figure 3). Majority of the plant species (129) in the studied valley were represented by perennials (83%) followed by annuals with 23 species (15%), and biennials with three species (2%). According to the phyto-geographical research, 65% of the species documented in the study area were native, with the remaining 15% being invasive, 14% being naturalized, and 5% being casual (Figure 4 and Table 1). The majority (30%) of exotic species were reported on the roadside, followed by natural forests (23%), crop fields (17%), dry slopes (16%), shady areas (5%), moist places, and riparian zones (4% each).

FIGURE 3

Figure 3. Plant species distribution according to Raunkiaer’s life form of the vegetation in Gurez valley, Kashmir Himalaya, India.

FIGURE 4

Figure 4. Plant species distribution according to nativity range of the vegetation in Gurez valley, Kashmir Himalaya, India.

Habitat-wise distribution

Of all species encountered 39% grew in the natural forests, 17% on dry slopes, 11% in shady places, 10% in moist places, 2% in riparian zones, 3% in rock crevices, and the remaining species were dispersed in highly distributed habitats, e.g., 11% along roadsides, 6% in crop fields, and 1% in vegetables gardens (Table 1 and Plate 2). Based on their floristic similarity, cluster analysis identified five clusters of various habitat types (Figure 5). Natural forests made up the first cluster, dry slopes and roadside vegetation made up the second, wet and shady areas made up the third, crop fields and vegetable gardens made up the fourth, and riparian vegetation and rock crevices made up the fifth (Figure 5).

FIGURE 5

Figure 5. Heat map based on Sørensen’s (1948) similarity index of plant species in Gurez valley, Kashmir Himalaya, India.

Similar to this, the NMDS revealed significant variation in habitat types, with some species groups having a stronger association with particular habitat types than others (Figure 6). In the biplot, five clusters of habitats based on species presence/absence can be identified: dry slope; natural forest; roadside; moist places and rocky crevice; and crop fields, riparian vegetation, shady places, and vegetable gardens. The major plant species richness was detected in rich and optimally moisturized natural forest habitats and middle richness in moist places as well as less distributed habitations.

FIGURE 6

Figure 6. Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) (plot of different habitat types in Gurez valley, Kashmir Himalaya, India. Full name of habitat is depicted in Table 1.

According to the estimated diversity indices, Natural forest had the greatest values for all three indices (Table 2). Shannon’s index for this habitat was 4.73, and Simpson’s was 0.99. There were 113 species present. After that, Dry slope and Shady areas held 46 and 31 specie (3.83 and 3.43 for Shannon index, and 0.98 and 0.97 for Simpson index, respectively) (Table 2) lowest values were recorded for Rock crevice and Vegetable garden (Table 2).

TABLE 2

Table 2. Variation of diversity indices between habitat types in Gurez valley, Kashmir Himalaya, India.

Discussion

In this study, we provide an in-depth evaluation of the qualitative vegetation of remote region of Kashmir Himalaya. The study revealed (i) 155 plant species belonging to 120 genera and 49 families, with (ii) an uneven distribution within families, with 50% of the species belonging to just 7 families and 23 families being monotypic. (iii) Therophytes were the most prevalent form of life, showing that the vegetation was disturbed (iv) Exotic species made up the remaining 35% and most exotic plants were found along roadsides. Finally, (v) natural forests scored the highest values for all three estimated diversity indices, compared to other human-modified habitats. Vegetation analysis helps to develop a comprehensive image of the plant communities of a particular region (Chhetri and Shrestha, 2019). Assessing the floristic diversity of hotspots of biodiversity is essential to understand the conservation status of these areas, which have a significant role in making the conservation strategies as well as policies. The vegetation of region was found to be very diverse due to ecological zonation, different microhabitats, and topographic features. 49 families and 155 species were found in the current investigation. In comparison to past studies conducted in other Himalayan locations (Qureshi and Bhatti, 2010; Semwal et al., 2010; Shaheen and Qureshi, 2011; Dangwal et al., 2012; Singh and Rawat, 2012) the number of plant species recorded in the current research area was higher. Numerous interrelated factors, including elevation, regional climate, topography, competition, regional species pool, regional species dynamics, and human activity have an impact on the regional patterns of species richness (Rahman et al., 2020; Mitchell et al., 2023). However, Khan et al. (2012) reported a higher number of plant species (198) from the Naran valley forest of Pakistan Himalaya but distributed in a lower number of families (68) when compared to our study. Similarly, Verma and Kapoor (2011) reported 160 vascular plant species belongs to 51 families from Ropa-Giavung valley in the cold deserts of District Kinnaur, Himachal Pradesh, India (also see Manzoor et al., 2016; Haq et al., 2022d; Ullah et al., 2022). However, at the region level the species richness of our study was comparatively higher than report in previous studies from Kashmir Himalayas (Bhat et al., 2014). Thus, the slight but predictable fluctuation in species number might be attributed to both abiotic environmental and biotic causes. Apart from elevation, microhabitats that reflect or predict vegetation patterns across landscapes. Together with the previously described findings, our findings demonstrate that while various studies have analyzed the floristic composition of the Himalayan region, each micro-region has unique functional groups that can significantly affect the structuring of the local plant community. Our study showed a smaller number of species than several other studies, but had a larger number of families, which may also represent an important result for the analysis of biodiversity in these regions. Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Apiaceae were reported as the families with the largest number of plant species. Due to wide range of ecological amplitudes, the plant species of Asteraceae are varied in habitats (Rahman et al., 2019a; Rashid et al., 2021; Waheed et al., 2022). Similar findings were observed by Haq et al. (2021d) in Kashmir Himalaya, India and Rahman et al. (2018) in Manoor valley, Pakistan. Many researchers have reported Asteraceae as the dominant family from different regions (Verma and Kapoor, 2011; Hussain et al., 2015; Ali et al., 2016; Amjad et al., 2017; Khan et al., 2018; Rahman et al., 2019a). This demonstrates the family’s strong capacity for adaptation to a variety of environments and temperatures. Additionally, in agreement with our findings, two other studies—Suyal et al. (2010) in the Garhwal Himalaya, India, and Khan et al. (2015) in Kabal (Swat), Pakistan—reported Lamiaceae as the dominant family.

The current study emphasizes the uneven distribution of plant species throughout families, with 23 families being identified as monotypic. The large variety of families, which revealed a varied distribution of flora in the area, is explained by variances in microhabitat, morphological features, life duration, and dynamic ecological niche (Haq et al., 2022a; Khoja et al., 2022). The diversity and structure of these plant communities can be influenced by various abiotic and biotic factors, which has also been shown by earlier research in the Western Himalayan region, and some species and/or families may not be as able to inhabit particular habitats as others (Rahman et al., 2018). The growth form of trees had higher proportion (13%) than shrubs (10%), an expression of a functioning forest ecosystem (Khan et al., 2015). The present results agreed with Khan et al. (2015), who found that a large diversity of microhabitats was favorable to tree species in the region. The findings of Sharma and Raina (2018) from other Himalayan forests further support these findings. Herbaceous species (111) were the dominant habit similar to other areas of the Northwestern Himalaya (Dar and Sundarapandian, 2016; Rahman et al., 2019b; Haq et al., 2021a; Nafeesa et al., 2021). Previous research in the Western Himalayan region has shown that certain species and/or families rarely have the same ability to occupy specific habitats as others, where varied abiotic and biotic effects can alter the diversity and organization of these plant communities (Haq et al., 2021b; Nafeesa et al., 2021).

It has been observed that the most promising approaches for predicting the species composition of any forest communities revolves around their functional traits. Therefore, studying functional groups usually provides clear information on the direct physiological adaptations of plant communities to particular environments conditions (Haq et al., 2019). The most common life form class were therophytes, followed by hemicryptophytes, magaphanerophytes, chamaephytes, and geophytes. Such biological variety represents the adaptation of plant species to the climatic factors (Khan et al., 2018). Hemi-cryptophytes predominate in the study area due to the cold and mountainous climate. In general, they withstand water scarcity by remaining dry or developing physiological, morphological, and anatomical traits that allow them to tolerate water loss. The fact that therophytes were found as the dominant life form in the studied area, which indicates high biotic disturbance levels on the habitat via grazing, human settlements, agricultural practices, and road constructions, since this life form is commonly associated with the unfavorable dry environmental condition, resulting in adopted strategies for their survival (Vakhlamova et al., 2016). The current findings agreed with Asim et al. (2016), Rahman et al. (2018, 2019b), Wali et al. (2022) who also documented the dominance of therophytes in the respective research areas. The high biotic disturbance significantly alters composition of the herbaceous layer and favored the abundant growth of alien annual weedy species such as such as Anthemis cotula, Amaranthus caudatus, Centaurea iberica, Datura stramonium, and Galinsoga parviflora, all of which are therophytes (Haq et al., 2021d). The second most prevalent type of life was hemicryptophytes. The association of hemicryptophytes with a cold, mountainous climate is a likely explanation for their predominance (Shimwell, 1971). Because of the soil and climate in the subalpine zones, chamaephytes are more common (Khan et al., 2018). Some habitats are more suited to plant development than others based on the diversity of species found in the forest environments of different geographic regions (Medvecká et al., 2018). Comparing natural forest habitats to other types of habitat, the current study found that natural forest environments harbored the highest diversity of species. However, anthropogenic disturbances are fragmenting, destroying, and degrading natural forest habitats, which is affecting the composition and layout of forest communities including in this area of the Himalayan region (Chakraborty et al., 2017; Rahman et al., 2022). Qureshi and Bhatti (2010), who recorded the highest number of plant species in natural forest habitats from Pakistan, provide additional support for our findings. Moreover, the resemblance in the plant species pool in human modified habitats provides an evidence toward the indication of ecological filtration that occurs in the region (Gardner et al., 2009). Anthropogenic disturbances common in this Himalayan region include overgrazing, deforestation, over-exploitation and fragmentation of natural intact forests due to linear development such as road networks and transmission lines (Haq et al., 2022b). Out of the total reported plant species, 35% were exotic, mostly in human modified habitats. Such numbers are comparable with those documented by Kohli et al. (2004) from the forests of Himachal Pradesh of Indian Himalayas. The most common invasive species growing in forest ecosystems of Jammu and Kashmir included trees like Aesculus indica, Ailanthus altissima, Juglans regia, Populus ciliate, subshrub Sambucus wightiana, and herbs such as Anthemis cotula, Amaranthus caudatus, Centaurea iberica and Datura stramonium (Haq et al., 2019, 2023b). The invasion of plant species is typically facilitated by disturbance because it overwhelms environmental and physical barriers. The parameters that cause the disturbances have been seen to be able to filter the makeup of a community and affect species concurrence by altering resource and safe spot availability (Davis et al., 2000; Haq et al., 2022c,2023a). Generally, those species having wide niches and can pass via these filters and likely to overrun newly ecosystems after these are disturbed (Dukes and Mooney, 1999). Furthermore, invasions of exotics into forests might be facilitated by the incursion of other plant species generating conditions that encourage other invasive plant species over native species (Niu et al., 2007). When alien species invade a newly range, innate plant species, adaptation to the new environment, is sometimes evacuated (van Boheemen et al., 2019). The vegetation composition variations rise via a variety of procedure sensuing the disappearance of the diversity of plant species such as communities change from native desired plant species to monospecific positions of the invasive plant species (Pérez-Ramos et al., 2019; Haq et al., 2021c). Invasive species have broad consequences in affecting potential management to decrease the effects of climate changes (Kraft et al., 2015).

Implications for forest management and policy

According to our findings, 35% of plant species were deemed to be alien, indicating that a large number of non-native species have spread to the inaccessible and isolated Himalaya region. We discovered a high percentage of exotic species (such as Aesculus indica, Ailanthus altissima, Sambucus wightiana, Anthemis cotula, Amaranthus caudatus, Centaurea iberica, and Datura stramonium) in disturbed forest habitats such as roadsides, and we propose that tunnels, rather than roads, are the best opinions of connectivity in fragile mountain ecosystems. The elements that threaten biodiversity must be minimized in order to keep ecosystems operating and their members intact. Regulations that limit alien species like Anthemis cotula, Artemisia absinthium, Bupleurum falcatum, Cuscuta reflexa, Galinsoga parviflora, and Senecio chrysanthemoides, introductions, and boost recovery, such as modifying structure through enhanced species regeneration and planting native species (Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus roxburghii, P. wallichiana, Taxus wallichiana, Betula utilis, Ulmus villosa, Trillium govanianum, Ajuga parviflora). We found that the study area serves as the natural habitat for several significant, endangered medicinal plants, including Arnebia benthamii, Bergenia ciliata, Delphinium roylei, Gentiana kurroo, Phytolacca acinosa, Saussurea costus, and Trillium govanianum. Therefore, we recommend that human intervention in natural regeneration efforts be prioritized in these habitats to increase the population of these species. Finally, existing knowledge of threats to the forest flora can be used to guide management in the face of future climate change. The forest management strategy could be organized so that potential hazards (like forest fragmentation, invasion of exotic species) are addressed before they become a problem. Furthermore, the majority of species recovery initiatives should focus on managing forest restoration in human modified habitats through by planting and reseeding native species like, Ulmus villosa, Betula utilis, Aconitum heterophyllum, Trillium govanianum, Fritillaria roylei, Arnebia benthamii, to lessen susceptibility to future threats in the landscape.

Conclusion

The identification of areas with a high value for biodiversity and the prioritization of these areas for conservation are crucial for preserving biodiversity. The present investigation described qualitative vegetation characteristics in a remote region of the Kashmir Himalaya. The dominance of few families, especially the Asteraceae, is a result of actual and potential dominating invaders in zones with significant disturbance. Therophytes emerged to be the primary form of life in the research area. The presence of a large fraction of therophytes indicates major anthropogenic disruptions. The study examined how environmental factors affect plant communities and placed special emphasis on the idea of habitat filtration as it relates to plant species’ abiotic tolerance. Furthermore, by examining species features from a functional groups standpoint, it may be possible to predict an ecosystem functionality more accurately. The study’s findings suggest that decision-makers and planners should place a greater emphasis on ecologically sustainable development in forest landscapes, considering species composition and the preservation of ecosystem function. Similar approaches should undoubtedly ensure that development activities do not contribute to biodiversity loss in fragile ecosystems.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Author contributions

SH, FL, and AK collected the data. SH and MW analyzed and interpreted the data and results. SH wrote initial draft of the manuscript. SH, RB, EM, HE, and FL revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This study was Researchers Supporting Project (RSP2023R118), King Saud University.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Researchers Supporting Project number (RSP2023R118), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Footnotes

1. ^ www.efloras.org

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