Climate-resilient, gender-responsive aqua-horticulture for rural nutrition and livelihoods: evidence from coastal region of India

Enhancing rural women’s access to productive resources, technologies and services can significantly strengthen their contributions to rural development. Their reliance on natural resources heightens their vulnerability to climate change. Yet this connection also positions rural women as key contributors to adaptive and sustainable resource management. Gender-focused interventions for climate adaptation and livelihood diversification continues to be an underexplored area globally. In this context, the impact of gender-responsive and climate-resilient homestead aquaculture and horticulture interventions on household food availability, income enhancement, and women’s empowerment was assessed among 58 rural households across five villages in the flood-prone districts of Puri and Bhadrak, India. The interventions were implemented through community mobilization, capacity building, and participatory action research. The initiative aimed to empower women to make effective use of available homestead and community resources, and to work collectively in adopting strategies that mitigate climate shocks. The key resource was homestead ponds, averaging 0.11 hectares, where women actively engaged in fish farming and integrated vegetables cultivation (averaging 97 m²) to enhance income and nutrition. As a result, fish yields from homestead ponds increased by nearly 95% (3.22 tonnes per hectare per year), generating a net income of USD 1885.41 per hectare per year. Multiple stocking and harvesting boosted per-household fish availability from 15.2 kg to 45 kg per annum. The incorporation of Puntius gonionotus with Indian Major Carps (IMC) provided an additional average yield of 1.12 tonnes per hectare per year. Vegetable harvests reached about 675 kg annually from plots ranging between 50 and 150 m², supplying approximately 230 g of vegetables per person per day, and generating around USD 143 annually from surplus sales. Paddy straw mushroom cultivation emerged as a profitable alternate livelihood, enabling women farmers to earn about USD 5.5 per day, fostering greater confidence and enthusiasm. Women’s participation in the different aquaculture and horticulture activities increased by around 5.2–83.0%. The active involvement of women in adopting and implementing these climate-resilient, gender-responsive practices-at both household and community levels led to improved household income, enhanced nutrition, and strengthened women’s capabilities, participation, and decision-making in farm, family, and community affairs.

1 Introduction

Agriculture plays a critical role in shaping various aspects of nutrition, including the availability, affordability, diversity, and safety of food. Women farmers are a core part of agriculture of any country. They are primarily engaged in cultivating crops such as pulses and vegetables, which serve as vital household nutrition sources. They also play a significant role in livestock rearing and aquaculture. Despite this, the gap between rural women and their access to productive assets, modern technologies, market services, education, and employment opportunities still remains to be narrowed down (Doss, 2018). It is a widely acknowledged fact that extreme climate events continue to undermine global food security. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events are increasingly impacting agricultural productivity. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022) warns that these climatic shifts could reduce global agricultural yields by up to 30% by 2050. This challenge will hit resource-poor smallholder farmers and women the hardest, given their strong reliance on climate-sensitive farming systems and their limited capacity to adapt (Adamseged and Kebede, 2023). The dependence of women farmers on natural resources like water and fuel also makes them more vulnerable to climate change impacts. According to FAO (2023), women-led farming households in South Asia experience approximately USD 37 billion in annual climate-related income losses, representing an 8 % higher financial impact compared to male-headed farming households.

Climate-Resilient Agriculture (CRA) is gaining prominence as a key strategy to secure sustainable food production and improve rural livelihoods as agriculture today is facing unprecedented climate-related risks while still needing to feed a growing population. The livelihood adaption framework of CRA focuses on a multidimensional approach. It integrates various strategies for boosting farm productivity and incomes, enhancing resilience and adaptation of farming communities to climate-related shocks and risks, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions by promoting sustainable, low-emission farming practices (Zong et al., 2022). Globally, there remains a substantial research gap in designing gender-responsive strategies for climate change adaptation and livelihood diversification. An analysis of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and national adaptation plans (NAPs) from 24 countries shows that only 6 % of proposed climate interventions explicitly address women’s needs (FAO, 2024). Enhancing women’s knowledge, skills, and access to information on CRA can accelerate the adoption of sustainable practices and enhance resilience to climate shocks. Evidence also suggests that when women are equipped with adequate agricultural and nutrition knowledge, their households tend to consume more diverse and nutrient-rich foods (Ruel et al., 2018). Research demonstrates that women’s leadership in agroecological practices such as crop diversification, agroforestry, integrated farming systems, soil conservation techniques, and peer learning networks enhances both food security and nutritional outcomes while increasing women’s decision-making authority within households and communities (Bezner Kerr et al., 2021, 2022).

Homestead production systems have emerged as a promising approach to ensure a reliable supply of nutritious foods, generate household income, and promote soil, water, and biodiversity conservation (Depenbusch et al., 2021; Chao, 2024) through women’s participation. Homestead pond interventions have been promoted in several countries as a climate-adaptation strategy for food security (Okeke-Ogbuafor et al., 2021; Ragasa et al., 2022a; Tuy et al., 2024). Successful initiatives, such as Helen Keller International’s Homestead Food Production (HFP) model implemented in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Nepal, and the Philippines, demonstrate how integrated homestead gardening and small-scale aquaculture can improve the dietary diversity, enhance year-round availability and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods at the household level (Talukder et al., 2010; Galhena et al., 2013; Rammohan et al., 2019). Studies report that adoption of these systems can increase per capita fish consumption by 47–50%, while simultaneously contributing to the conservation of freshwater ecosystems (Nsonga, 2015; Ahmed and Waibel, 2019; Mondal et al., 2019). Evidence is available that farmers can become more resilient to climate shock by using climate-smart strategies, such as combining aquaculture and agriculture; in times of extreme drought, the ponds can supply enough moisture and nutrients to grow vegetable crops (Prein and Ahmed, 2000). Thus, by combining diverse agricultural practices, homestead systems hold considerable potential to strengthen resilience against climate-related shocks, an aspect that remains particularly important in vulnerable regions.

Despite their promise, most research on homestead production has predominantly focused on nutritional outcomes, while the dimensions of climate resilience and gender inclusivity have received limited attention (ADPC, 2023; Chao, 2024). Addressing this gap is especially crucial in ecologically fragile, flood-prone coastal areas where households face layered vulnerabilities. Against this backdrop, the present study designed and tested a comprehensive, multipronged approach to empower rural women in effectively utilizing homestead and community resources, fostering collective action, and adopting climate-resilient aqua-horticulture practices. The explicit objective was to enhance household food availability and income in these coastal regions while ensuring active and meaningful participation of women throughout the process.

2 Methodology

2.1 Study area and study design

The study was conducted in the two flood-prone districts viz. Puri and Bhadrak (Figure 1) of Odisha state of India which are classified as “Very High Risk” and “High Risk”, respectively in terms of climate vulnerability (Rao et al., 2019). During the study period from 2022 to 2024, the average annual rainfall in Puri district ranged from 993 mm to 1,197 mm, while Bhadrak district received between 1,223 mm and 1,370 mm (SRC Govt of Odisha, 2025). Odisha’s primary aquaculture sector spans approximately 1.57 lakh hectares of ponds and earthen tanks, encompassing both privately owned units and those managed by government agencies. In recent years, the expansion of government initiatives on groundwater recharge and rainwater harvesting has led to the excavation of numerous new ponds, offering valuable opportunities for fish production. The study included both homestead and community-based interventions (Figure 2).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Study locations (Bhadrak and Puri) are coastal districts of Odisha state of India (Source: Odisha State Disaster Management Authority | State Hazard Map).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Components of gender-responsive and climate-resilient integrated homestead aqua-horticulture.

The intervention package incorporated both homestead-based and community-based strategies to strengthen women’s livelihoods and climate resilience. At the household level, women were supported to adopt homestead aquaculture, integrate vegetable cultivation with fish farming, and diversify income through mushroom cultivation, vermicompost production, and vertical farming. These activities were designed to enhance year-round access to nutritious foods while creating multiple streams of income.

Complementing these efforts, community-based interventions were introduced to build collective capacity and improve access to essential services. These included establishing community fish seed nurseries to ensure a reliable and continuous supply of quality fish seed especially to tide over the shocks by natural calamities like flood, forming Women Farmer Interest Groups to promote peer learning and collective action, and setting up Custom Hiring Centres for fish farming and processing to engage in alternate livelihood options.

2.2 Data collection

For collection of data related to the study (Supplementary File 1), interactive survey (baseline as well as endline) with the selected respondents were conducted with the help of prepared questionnaires (Supplementary File 2). The draft questionnaires were prepared based on prevailing literature to collect information on general household details, socio-economic status, women’s knowledge and involvement in aquaculture and horticulture activities, access to resources, decision-making roles, and capabilities. These drafts were reviewed by subject-matter experts, and the revised versions were pre-tested with a small group of farmers. The final, refined questionnaire was then used for field data collection. Additionally, data on various inputs and outputs related to fish and vegetable farming were systematically documented in farm record books provided to the farmers, enabling them to record monthly data. The data on income was collected in Indian Rupees (INR) and converted to US Dollar (USD) by using the conversion factor 1 USD = INR 83.7. The pre- and post-intervention data on vegetable production were collected for the same cropping seasons, while the pre intervention data on homestead fish production reflected annual figures. In order to reduce the Hawthorne effect, the researchers adopted the measures like strong rapport establishment before the study to build confidence among the respondents that the study has a research purpose, a prolonged period of observation of the participants for habituation with the observers, collection of data on production and availability details of vegetables and fish, from farm record book which minimized their awareness that they were being monitored.

2.3 Study design

This study was undertaken in the farmer’s fields and with active participation of the farming community. The perceptions of farmers regarding the meteorological changes associated with the climate change impacts, the constraints faced by them in farming, their awareness level on adaptation and mitigation practices and the needed technological interventions were assessed prior to the study. Farmers—both women and men—were invited to inception workshops to plan the action research. The climate-resilient and gender-responsive technologies/practices which suit the farmers according to the availability of resources and their interest were decided in a participatory mode and then popularised. Farmers worked with project staff to develop customized farm layouts (vegetable gardens, trellis system). Women farmers actively contributed to decide the location of nurseries, vermicompost pits, and vegetable garden plots, ensuring ease of access. Farmers participated in hands-on demonstrations of fish seed stocking, feed preparation, mushroom cultivation, vermicompost preparation, water quality testing, integrated pest management (IPM) and many others. The homestead ponds and the vegetable gardens were managed and monitored by the farmer households. Farmers kept records on fish and vegetable production, input cost and use, which were used to assess the impact of the interventions on production, income and household fish and vegetable availability. Women farmers amalgamated into farmer interest groups to manage the community fish seed nurseries and custom hiring centres established in the villages.

The study started with the identification of different gender-responsive and climate-resilient aqua-horticultural practices for the study locations. Baseline survey was conducted to collect data on socioeconomic situation, knowledge, participation, production level of the women farming community. The participatory action research was conducted involving 58 farm households followed by impact study (Figure 3). Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a collaborative approach that brings together academic institutions and community-based organizations to co-produce knowledge and translate it into meaningful action. It relies on the active involvement and ongoing reflection of both researchers and practitioners throughout all stages of the process—design, data collection, analysis, and the implementation of findings (Moragues-Faus et al., 2015). At its core, PAR is defined by two key elements: action and participation. The emphasis on action reflects its commitment to driving social or community change through research that is purposeful, reflective, and solution-oriented. The element of participation ensures that the people for whom the research is intended are not passive subjects but active contributors, involved to varying degrees in shaping the research agenda and outcomes (IDRC-CRDI, 2012). Through this combined focus, PAR fosters shared ownership, local relevance, and practical impact.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Steps involved in the study at climatically vulnerable locations in Odisha, India.

In the present study, PAR actively involved women at every stage of the process, helping shift them from co-actors to co-creators. This fostered their empowerment though their gain in knowledge on the climate-resilient practices, improved their access to productive resources, enhanced their participation in decision making and also made them capable to handle alternate livelihood options like mushroom cultivation. PAR also helped mobilize social capital through the formation of Women Farmer Interest Groups (WFIGs). These WFIGs are efficiently managing the community fish seed nursery and the custom hiring centres.

2.4 Study participants and profile

A purposive sample of 58 farm households owning homestead ponds (mean pond size: 0.11 hectare) was selected from five villages across three blocks in the Puri and Bhadrak districts of Odisha. About 29% of these ponds were seasonal, experiencing reduced water levels during the summer, while 67.5% were used for the traditional fish farming. The average household size was five members. Among the women farmers, 52% were between 20 and 40 years old, and 29% were aged 40–50. Agriculture served as the primary occupation for 79% of these households. Majority (52%) of the farmers reported an annual income between USD 2389.5–4779.0. Nearly half (48%) of the women had 10–19 years of farming experience. Around 95% of population of Odisha consume fish. The fish consumption by Indian population has been steadily increasing through the years. In 2021, the average annual per capita fish consumption in India was 8.89 kg and among the fish-eating population it was 12.33 kg (Padiyar et al., 2024). In the current study, the annual household availability of fish from homestead aquaculture was 15 kg prior to the interventions. The annual or biannual nature of harvest of fish from the homestead ponds limited the availability of fish for the household consumption. On an average, daily per capita vegetable availability from homestead production was 53 g; however, during waterlogged conditions, households were unable to cultivate vegetables in their backyards. The rest of the demand for fish and vegetables were met by the farmer households through purchase from local markets.

2.5 Intervention design

Gender-responsive, climate-resilient practices in aquaculture and horticulture were identified through expert consultations, literature review and evaluated for their feasibility and suitability for adoption by both the men and women farmers in coastal flood-prone areas (Tables 1, 2). Before implementing the interventions, women’s knowledge, participation, and empowerment, particularly with respect to resource access, decision-making, and capabilities, were assessed using a survey method with semi-structured questionnaires.

Table 1

Table 1. Gender-responsive and climate-resilient fish production practices.

Table 2

Table 2. Gender-responsive and climate-resilient vegetable production practices.

The participatory action research was conducted between June 2022 and December 2024. Farmers—both women and men—were invited to inception workshops to plan the action research. Those climate-resilient and gender-responsive technologies/practices which suit the farmers according to their interest and availability of resources were popularised. Community fish seed nurseries were established in the villages using farm ponds excavated by the Department of Soil and Water Conservation, Government of Odisha, for the production of advanced fingerlings of Indian Major Carps (IMC). The IMC comprise of three economically important fresh water fish species such as Catla (Laboe catla), Rohu (Labeo rohita) and Mrigal (Cirrhinus cirrhosus). The area of each nursery pond was approximately 400 m². Fry of IMC (size 41–60 mm) were stocked in these ponds at a density of 7 lakh per hectare during July–August. Farmers were advised to provide a daily feed ration not exceeding 1% of the biomass, with harvesting to begin from the third month after stocking.

To reduce losses from floods and other natural calamities, delayed stocking of individual homestead ponds with advanced fingerlings at a density of 8,000 per hectare was carried out in October. For seasonal ponds, the introduction of Puntius gonionotus (Java punti) alongside IMC was recommended to improve household fish availability and income. P. gonionotus was stocked at 20% of the density used for IMC and harvested within 5–6 months, once they reached an average weight of 350–400 g. Farmers were encouraged to follow a multiple-stocking and multiple-harvesting (MSMH) system, replenishing harvested fish from the community nurseries. On average, at least three fish harvests were carried out annually from each homestead pond. This approach not only ensured a steady supply of income and fish for households but also minimized the risk of complete stock loss during natural disasters such as floods. Additionally, regular netting helped maintain pond productivity by releasing harmful gases trapped at the pond bottom.

Eighteen vegetable varieties were selected for year-round cultivation in 150 square metre gardens, with irrigation sourced from homestead ponds. Farmers received guidance on designing vegetable garden layouts (Figure 4) and they worked with the researchers to develop customized farm layouts. Women actively contributed to deciding location of nurseries, vermicompost pits, and vegetable garden plots, ensuring ease of access. Both spouses from participating households were trained in gender-responsive, climate-resilient aquaculture and horticulture practices. To help plan their activities, farmers were provided with two calendars one for climate-resilient homestead aquaculture package of practices (Supplementary Table 1) and another for growing vegetable crops (Table 3). Key inputs were supplied, including fish seed for stocking, biofortified/open-pollinated/disease-resistant vegetable seeds and planting materials, biofertilizers, eco-friendly pest management supplies, and inputs for mushroom cultivation and vermicompost production. Women-friendly fish harvesting gear, tools, implements, and harvesting bags were introduced to reduce the drudgery of farm work and increase women’s participation. Mushroom cultivation and custom hiring centers were promoted as alternative livelihood opportunities for women farmers. Women organized themselves into Women Farmer Interest Groups (WFIGs) of 18–20 members each to oversee the management of community fish nurseries and custom hiring centers. These centers were equipped with machinery for processing (pulveriser, solar dryer), fish feed production, fishing nets, water pumps, and other essential equipment. The homestead ponds and the vegetable gardens were managed and monitored by the farmer households. Farmers kept records on fish and vegetable production, input cost and use, which were used to assess the impact of the interventions on production, income and household fish and vegetable availability.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Layout of a 150 m² vegetable garden for year-round household production.

Table 3

Table 3. Crop calendar of vegetable crops grown in vegetable garden.

2.6 Data analysis

The collected data on knowledge, participation, access to resources, and capability were coded numerically, compiled, tabulated, and analysed. To classify and interpret the findings, statistical measures such as mean, percentage, standard deviation, and ranking were applied. Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was used to examine relationships between relevant variables. Empowerment in Homestead Aqua-Horticulture Index (EHAHI) was also computed considering three important dimensions: access to resources and services, decision making and capability of women adopting the homestead aqua-horticulture within the project area. The dimensions and weightage of each respective indicator in the EHAHI are presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Table 4. Empowerment dimensions and weightage of each respective indicator used in the EHAHI.*

*EHAHI: Empowerment in Homestead Aqua-Horticulture Index.

The composite index value for each respondent was calculated using following formula;

$\mathit{\text{EHAHI}}=\frac{1}{d}\sum _{i=1}^d\frac{1}{n_i}\sum _{j=1}^{n_i}\frac{x_{\mathit{ij}}}{k_{\mathit{ij}}}$

Where,

EHAHI = Empowerment in Homestead Aqua-Horticulture Index.

d = Number of dimensions.

n_i = Number of indicators in ith dimension.

x_ij = Observation (score) of jth indicator under ith dimension.

k_ij = Highest possible score for jth indicator under ith dimension.

∑ = Sum.

The composite index value ranges from 0 to 1 with 0 being the minimum and 1 being the maximum value.

The data was subjected to paired t-test for pre and post comparison of fish and vegetable production, household availability, income and empowerment level. All graphs were created in MS Excel and subsequently exported.

3 Results and discussion

Women’s empowerment in agriculture under changing climate scenario means enhancing women’s power, agency, and inclusion in climate-resilient farming systems by improving their access to productive resources (land, water, and related climate-resilient practices/technologies), improving their income, and expanding their role in decision-making on climate-resilient production practices. It also involves recognising and reducing their drudgery through women friendly technologies and enabling their leadership in adaptation and mitigation actions and thereby contribute to stronger household food security and climate-resilient rural livelihoods.

3.1 Participation profile of women farmers in aquaculture and horticulture activities

The pre- and post-assessment of participation profile of women farmers in climate-resilient aquaculture and horticulture practices revealed a remarkable increase following the capacity-building interventions. As per the response of women farmers, the most notable improvement in participation was observed in fish stocking (83%), followed by vegetable harvesting (47%), sowing vegetable seeds along pond dykes (41%), and irrigation and transplanting vegetable seedlings (41%) (Figure 5). A significant (p < 0.01) positive correlation (0.65) was found between knowledge gained by women and the change in their participation profile in aquaculture and horticulture activities. Evidence indicates that women’s adoption of improved agricultural practices increases substantially when they receive adequate extension support and technical training (Meinzen-Dick et al., 2011; Ragasa et al., 2022b). A positive although insignificant (p > 0.01) correlation (0.179) was found between changes in participation and changes in production (Table 5). This points to the fact that active engagement of rural women can contribute positively to fish production from homestead pond resources and thus resulting in improved income (Elias et al., 2024). The substantial rise in participation in fish and vegetable harvesting can be linked to the introduction of women-friendly tools—such as easy-to-use harvesting bags, small implements, and gill nets—that reduced drudgery. Similar findings have been reported earlier (Anithakumari et al., 2021) wherein it was established that enabling technology adoption and skill acquisition through need-based capacity-building programs can empower women to enhance income, savings, and dietary diversity. Hence, integrating gender considerations into climate-smart agriculture training can strengthen women’s adaptive skills in resilient farming techniques (Palombi and Sessa, 2013; Doss, 2018). Further evidence also shows that when women are equipped with agricultural and nutrition knowledge, households consume more diverse and nutrient-rich foods (Ruel et al., 2018).

Figure 5

Figure 5. Changes in women farmers’ participation in homestead aquaculture and vegetable farming.

Table 5

Table 5. Pearson correlation co-efficient (r) among variables affecting aquaculture activities by women farmers.

3.2 Knowledge gain of women farmers in aquaculture and horticulture activities through capacity building

The practices or concepts in which the women farmers’ gained knowledge through the capacity building programmes is depicted in Table 6. The highest gains in knowledge were observed in areas such as vegetable seed preservation (48.28%), protray cultivation of vegetable seedlings (45.69%), and preparation of farm-made aquafeed (43.97%). These improvements are likely to strengthen women farmers’ technical skills and overall capacity to sustain both fish and vegetable production over the long term. The observed significant (p < 0.01) positive correlation between knowledge gain and participation (r = 0.65) highlights the decisive role of capacity building in strengthening women’s contribution in aquaculture and horticulture (Table 5). The lowest knowledge gain was found in aquaculture aspects such as water quality assessment (19.83%), disease diagnosis (19.83%), and stocking density (18.97%). This may be because of the reasons that these domains require higher levels of technical understanding, specialized skills, and repeated hands-on practice. The limited prior exposure to these scientific concepts, might have made the new learning more challenging and slower. Knowledge transfer is a key external factor influencing rural women farmers’ engagement in agricultural activities and their decision to adopt a new practice is often determined by their level of understanding of that practice (Kumar et al., 2024). Tailoring the advisory services specifically for women within households can lead to substantial improvements in women’s empowerment (Lecoutere et al., 2023). Existing literature also shows that empowering women in aquaculture leads to higher fish productivity and production (Kruijssen et al., 2016; Hossain et al., 2023), with increased knowledge being a key driver of such empowerment. In this study, homestead fish production and women’s knowledge gain exhibited a weak yet positive correlation (0.13) (Table 5), underscoring the need for consistent training and knowledge-sharing sessions to strengthen and sustain their understanding over time.

Table 6

Table 6. Knowledge gain of women farmers in aquaculture and horticulture activities.

3.3 Women’s empowerment through improved access to resources, decision-making, and capabilities under gender-responsive climate-resilient aqua-horticulture practices

Improvements in women’s empowerment were assessed in terms of their access to resources, participation in decision-making, and enhancement of capabilities which are represented in Figures 6–8, respectively. Limited access to essential agricultural resources is a major factor that gradually reduces women’s productivity and restricts their ability to adapt their agronomic practices and livelihood strategies in response to climate change. Therefore, deliberate measures such as participatory approaches adopted in the study that prioritized the active involvement of women stakeholders are essential when formulating climate change-related policies and initiatives.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Change in access to resources by women farmers [Change in (1) Access to pond for fish farming, (2) Timely access to good quality fish seed and vegetable seeds, (3) Access to required nets, craft or pumps for aquaculture activities and tools and implements for horticultural activities, (4) Timely access to manure or fertilizer or chemicals for fish farming and vegetable farming, (5) Access to loan/subsidies, (6) Access to market facilities for selling fish and vegetables, (7) Timely access to training programmes on aquaculture, horticulture or post-harvest activities, (8) Timely access to weather information, (9) Access to postharvest processing facilities/marketing facilities, (10) Access to resources and opportunities to upscale farming business].

Figure 7

Figure 7. Change in decision making participation of women farmers [Change in participation in decision making regarding: (1) What, when, where and how to grow fish and vegetables, (2) Purchase of critical farm inputs, (3) Availing credit facilities or subsidies, (4) Decisions on how to invest the loan amount, (5) How much produce to retain for home consumption or sale, (6) When, where, at what price to sell the produce, (7) Kind of food items to be purchased, furniture, land, (8) How to spend money earned from farm or main income-generating activity, (9) Purchase and sale of livestock and poultry, (10) Travel outside the community for visiting relatives or occupational purposes, (11) Participate in community activities, (12) Education of children, (13) Health of family members].

Figure 8

Figure 8. Changes in capabilities of women farmers [Change in capability to (1) Manage all the farm activities, (2) Manage new farming techniques/new processing techniques/new species related to your aquaculture enterprise, (3) Use mobile/internet to get required agricultural information, (4) Diagnose disease attack on fish and apply the required medications, (5) Diagnose the diseases and pests in vegetables and apply the required medications, (6) Apply for subsidies/loans, (7) Procure inputs, tools and implements, (8) Contact agricultural research/development/extension officials, (9) Value addition in farm produce to get better price, (10) Start new livelihood option/ farm enterprise].

Our study revealed that women farmers’ access to resources required for aqua-horticulture was a constraint. For example, a women farmer of Solagaon village (Bhadrak district, Odisha, India) during the baseline survey expressed that her homestead pond remained underutilized for scientific fish farming as she was unable to fetch high-quality fish seed. She also expressed her need for capacity building on climate-resilient aquaculture techniques to enhance and sustain fish production effectively. During the endline survey the same farmer enthusiastically responded that the community fish seed nursery established within the village is facilitating her to timely access high-quality fish seed locally. Additionally, the connections established with the state fisheries department’s fish seed hatchery also supporting the women farmers in these aspects. Moreover, training on fish feed formulation, water quality assessment, IPM, and vermicompost production has enhanced the confidence of women farming community to actively engage in these activities.

According to women farmers’ responses, there was a 37% increase in access to good quality fish and vegetable seeds (Figure 6), largely due to the establishment of community fish nurseries in the villages, which enabled regular replenishment of pond fish stocks. Linkages were also developed with Krishi Vigyan Kendras (Farm Science Centers), State Fisheries Department hatcheries, National Seed Corporation, ICAR institutes as well as State Agricultural Universities, ensuring timely procurement of fish and vegetable seeds. Access to loans and subsidies improved by 42%, primarily because of increased awareness about government schemes and programs. Access to timely skill training rose by 31%, with regular sessions provided on homestead aquaculture, vegetable cultivation, eco-friendly pest management, mushroom farming, and vermicompost production.

A significant impact of the interventions on the participation of women farmers in decision making was observed in our study. Figure 7 shows the changes in participation of women farmers in decision making regarding household, farm and community activities. The respondents explained that previously they had no role in decisions related to farm input purchases, the sale or purchase of livestock or poultry, the marketing of farm produce, or the use of farm income. Their involvement was limited to assisting spouse in routine tasks such as land preparation, seed sowing, and fish feeding, mainly following instructions without understanding the underlying rationale. After receiving training, they gained clarity on the purpose and correct application of various practices, which enhanced their confidence to independently engage in farm operations. They are now participating in activities such as fish feed preparation, water quality monitoring, fish seed stocking, and vegetable harvesting using improved tools, and also in fish harvesting. This increased participation has strengthened their confidence to contribute to discussions and taking decisions on farm-related matters. They feel that their opinion is being respected within the household.

Through their involvement in gender-inclusive, climate-resilient homestead aqua-horticulture, women farmers experienced a 39% increase in decision-making participation regarding how much of their farm produce should be retained for household consumption versus sold (Figure 7). Strengthening women’s decision-making power can gradually transform power dynamics within both the family and the wider community, fostering greater recognition of their contributions to household nutritional security and livelihoods. Decision-making within the household is a key factor influencing women’s adoption of new technologies and practices (Theis et al., 2018; Gebre et al., 2021). In this study, a 34% increase was observed in women’s participation in decisions concerning family education and healthcare (Figure 7), reflecting growing acknowledgment of their role. Likewise, the marked rise in decision-making regarding fish and vegetable cultivation highlights the confidence gained through skill training and capacity-building initiatives. This enhanced decision-making role is likely linked to women’s improved capacity to manage resources and generate additional income by adopting supplementary livelihood activities such as mushroom cultivation and managing custom hiring centers (Figure 8).

Previous studies have shown that improving access to resources, delivering targeted training, and encouraging sustainable practices can enhance women’s roles in agriculture, fostering both social and economic empowerment while advancing sustainable development (Hidrobo et al., 2024; Singh et al., 2025). It has been found that women are up to 5% more likely to adopt a technology when given the same access to productive resources as men (Paudel et al., 2020). In this study, the establishment of custom hiring centers and community fish nurseries expanded women farmers’ access to alternative livelihood opportunities by 29%, enabling them to better cope with climate change impacts (Figure 8). Women Farmer Interest Groups (WFIGs) were formed in the villages as small, interest-based collectives comprising 18–20 women farmers from the same village. Groups operated with a democratically elected leadership and met regularly to plan activities, share experiences, and take collective decisions related to production and resource use. Women Farmer Interest Groups (WFIGs) managed Custom Hiring Centres (CHCs) through a collective institutional arrangement. Group members were responsible for scheduling, operation, and maintenance of farm machinery, with user charges fixed by the group through consensus. A designated member maintained records of bookings, usage, and revenue, while funds generated were used for repair, depreciation, and group activities. With improved access to resources, women enhanced their capacity to manage new farming and processing techniques and adopt new fish species (25%), engage in value addition to farm produce for higher returns (33%), and independently procure inputs, tools, and implements (26%) (Figure 8).

The significant increase (p < 0.01) in the mean Empowerment in Homestead Aqua- Horticulture Index (EHAHI) intervention from 0.309 at baseline to 0.433 at endline indicates meaningful gains in women’s empowerment over the study period (Figure 9). This improvement suggests that participation in integrated aqua-horticultural activities enhanced women’s access to productive resources, involvement in household and farm-level decision-making, and capability to manage income-generating activities. The observed change can be attributed to the combined effects of skill-based training, regular engagement in homestead production systems, and collective action mechanisms embedded within the intervention. Similar trends have been reported in gender-responsive agriculture programs, where diversified livelihood activities at the household level contributed to strengthening women’s agency and economic confidence. For example, qualitative research from a homestead food production programme in rural Bangladesh identified a multi-stage pathway to women’s empowerment, whereby training, initial production success, and the generation of social and financial resources progressively enhanced women’s decision-making agency and self-efficacy within their households and communities (Dupuis et al., 2022). Outcomes from small-scale pond polyculture programmes in Bangladesh indicated that involving women in homestead pond aquaculture strengthens their technical knowledge, practical skills, and confidence to participate in productive activities (Akter et al., 2025). However, the extent to which these empowerment gains can be sustained over time or replicated in other socio-ecological contexts warrants further investigation.

Figure 9

Figure 9. Empowerment in Homestead Aqua- Horticulture Index (EHAHI).

3.4 Fish production, availability, and income

The findings on the influence of climate-resilient aquaculture practices on fish production, income, and household fish availability are summarized in Table 6. Farmers selected for the study adopted MSMH as a climate-resilient practice and each household harvested IMC an average of three times per year. Periodic harvesting provided a steady income stream while strengthening resilience to risks and shocks, such as crop losses from floods or cyclones (Tanuja et al., 2025). All participating farmers cultivated IMC in their homestead ponds, while 34% practiced polyculture by adding Puntius gonionotus alongside IMC. From the ponds of average area of 0.11 ± 0.07 hectare, households produced 0.21 ± 0.16 t of IMC in the first intervention year, which rose to 0.279 ± 0.08 t in the second year. Farmers who practiced polyculture, harvested an additional 88 kg of P. gonionotus annually. Polyculture of IMC with minor or medium carps has been shown to build resilience to climate shock and lessen production risks, as these species have shorter culture cycles and provide additional income and nutrition (Tanuja et al., 2025).

According to Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) recommendations (ICMR, 2020), a person should consume 25 g of fish daily, amounting to 45.6 kg annually for a five-member household. As a result of the interventions, the annual household fish availability increased from 15.2 kg to 45.0 kg-an improvement of 196% (Table 7). The share of harvested fish consumed at home grew from 8 to 16% over three years. In the first year, households met 89% of the recommended fish intake, and by the second year, they achieved 100%. A strong positive correlation (0.654) between increased fish production and consumption (Table 5) confirms that homestead aquaculture can be an effective pathway to improving nutritional security. After meeting household needs, farmers sold an average surplus of 240 kg, generating additional income. The average net income from climate-resilient homestead aquaculture was USD 1885.41 per hectare, with a profit margin of 57%. Production per hectare rose from 1.65 tonnes per hectare to 3.22 tonnes per hectare (Table 7). Before the interventions, average earnings were USD 486.77 per hectare with a 22.25% profit margin. A significant enhancement (p < 0.01) in economic performance was observed, as reflected by the increase in the benefit–cost ratio from 1.22 in the pre-intervention period to 1.57 in the post-intervention period. This improvement signifies higher returns per unit cost of cultivation and demonstrates the positive impact of the intervention on farm-level profitability. Earlier studies (Ahmed and Waibel, 2019; Chakrabarti and Banerjee, 2021) have highlighted that homestead ponds can serve as significant indirect income sources, with yields ranging from 1.5 to 5.5 tonnes per hectare per season and thus homestead aquaculture can enhance family food availability and dietary diversity by increasing both fish availability for home use and income through sales.

Table 7

Table 7. Details of homestead fish production and income.

The effects of combining vegetable cultivation with homestead aquaculture through climate-resilient practices on household vegetable production, availability, and income were examined, with the findings illustrated in Table 8 and Figure 10. Vegetables play a significant role in meeting the body’s diverse nutritional requirements—providing at least 51 essential nutrients on a regular basis—due to their high vitamin, mineral as well as dietary fiber content (Graham et al., 2007). In India, where subsistence farming remains predominant, household dietary diversity is closely linked to production diversity, as families often consume what they produce (Jones, 2017). Homestead gardens thus represent a climate-resilient strategy, enhancing both nutrition and livelihoods. In addition, gender-sensitive gardening practices empower women by strengthening their role in household decision-making and resource allocation. Evidence highlights women’s contributions to food security through sustainable gardening, particularly in agrarian and coastal communities (Clement et al., 2019; De Pinto et al., 2020). Despite these benefits, year-round vegetable production is constrained by inadequate access to quality seeds and limited technical knowledge. Training in eco-friendly pest management and biofertilizer application improved women’s confidence to adopt sustainable practices. Seed storage of open-pollinated varieties ensured future planting material, while protray-based seedling production for crops such as brinjal, chilli, and tomato provided high-quality transplants and protected seedlings from flood or heavy rain damage. Prior to interventions, per capita daily vegetable availability from homestead gardens averaged 53 g, with no systematic crop calendar or plot design. Establishment of nutri-gardens, combined with climate-resilient horticulture practices, increased availability by 330%. Based on ICMR-NIN recommendations of 400 g per adult per day (including GLVs, roots, and tubers), vegetables from nutri-garden contributed to 57% of the recommended dietary allowance of vegetables (ICMR-NIN, 2024). On average, households produced 675 kg of vegetables annually, retaining 61% for home consumption and generating approximately USD 143.37 per year from surplus sales (Table 8). This confirms the achievement of a sustainable, remunerative and market-driven production system (Sarangi, 2022). The peak production of vegetables was July to September (Figure 10). Mushroom cultivation, adopted by 55% of participating women, emerged as a complementary livelihood and climate adaptation measure. This enterprise yielded an average income of USD 5.5 per day and contributed to household nutrition, with families consuming approximately 33 kg of mushrooms annually.

Table 8

Table 8. Vegetable production and availability (Average area 97 m²).

Figure 10

Figure 10. Month-wise mean homestead vegetable production pre- and post-intervention (N = 58).

The interventions under CRA framework through the study resulted in increased fish and vegetable production, enhanced household food availability, income improvements even under recurring climatic shocks, such as heavy rainfall causing floods in the study villages (Flood Bulletin, Department of Water Resources, Government of Odisha, 2023). These findings justify the effectiveness of the intervention strategies as a CRA framework for these climatically vulnerable coastal regions.

4 Conclusion

The study highlights the potential of gender-responsive integrated homestead aqua-horticulture to enhance rural livelihoods by boosting income, improving fish and vegetable availability, and empowering women in the face of climate challenges. Interventions focused on building the capacity of women farmers in diverse practices and alternative livelihood options, enabling them to become self-reliant and active promoters of adaptive, climate-resilient farming strategies within homestead systems. These measures were associated with a 196% increase in household fish availability and a 332% rise in per capita daily vegetable availability among the farmer households participating in the interventions. Furthermore, greater involvement of women farmers in fish and vegetable farming, in decision-making related to agriculture and family matters, and in enhancing their capabilities across farming, household, and community activities is expected to strengthen the sustainability of agri-food systems. This, in turn, will help ensure income stability while enhancing the consistent availability of vegetables and fish for rural households. Despite the positive outcomes observed, there are few limitations in the study. The study involved a relatively small sample of households across two districts, which may limit the generalizability of the results to wider rural populations outside the coastal agro-ecological region. The interventions were implemented in a specific agroecological and socio-cultural context, and the regional specificity may influence the transferability of the practices to other settings with different climatic, resource, or gender dynamics. However, there is scope for studies on long-term sustainability, seasonal variability, or year-on-year changes in women’s empowerment and production outcomes. Future research could involve comprehensive case studies across different regional contexts to assess the effectiveness of localized climate-resilient approaches. Alongside this, effective community sensitization and awareness on climate resilience, gender equity, and nutrition—supported by strong institutional mechanisms—will be crucial for the adoption and long-term sustainability of climate-resilient homestead farming in diverse agricultural and socio-economic settings.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the [patients/participants OR patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin] was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

TS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft. SS: Supervision, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. LD: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. AS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – original draft. TS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. MD: Project administration, Resources, Writing – review & editing. BJ: Data curation, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. PS: Data curation, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. The research was funded by National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. The publication was supported by ICAR- Central Institute for Women in Agriculture, Bhubaneswar.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2026.1716280/full#supplementary-material

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