The impact of Language of Learning and Teaching on the performance of commercial subjects in South African rural schools

The underperformance and declining enrolment in commercial subjects (Business studies, Economics, and Accounting) in some South African schools in the Capricorn South District have raised concerns about their sustainability. Limited research has explored the role of Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT) in shaping commercial learners’ performance, particularly in rural schools, despite evidence that poor proficiency in the LOLT can hinder comprehension and curriculum delivery in English-medium subjects. This study examines the effects of LOLT on academic performance in commercial subjects within rural schools in the Capricorn South District. Adopting an interpretive paradigm and qualitative methodology, a multiple case study design was employed. Ten commercial departmental heads from ten secondary schools were purposively sampled. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews with document analysis used to triangulate the findings, then analysed using thematic content analysis. The study found poor proficiency in the LOLT is a barrier to the delivery of the curriculum in commercial subjects. Accordingly, the study concludes that LOLT proficiency is a critical determinant of academic success in commercial subjects. Addressing language barriers through systematic educational reforms, such as teacher training programmes and bilingual education models could improve learners’ outcomes and prevent further decline in subject enrolment.

1 Introduction

The South African education system exhibits significant inefficiencies, marked by underperformance and notable inequities (Spaull, 2013). The secondary school commercial curriculum is particularly affected, as Kruger (2018), in his study on pedagogical content and knowledge, found learner underperformance for Economics in the annual national senior certificate examinations. Similarly, research on higher education found that the Accounting subject is facing problems related to limited resources and the underdevelopment of skills (McIntyre et al., 2014). Commercial subjects offer a pathway for learners to gain exposure to the theoretical and practical components of the business and the economy at large; consequently, it is essential to have as many learners as possible enrolling and excelling in commercial subjects (Mathiba, 2021).

The language barrier has been found to be one of the factors leading to the underperformance of commercial subjects like Accounting and Economics. It was found that poor proficiency in the language of learning and teaching can be a barrier to the delivery of content subjects delivered in English. Karali (2022) found that teachers in rural areas face pedagogical obstacles when teaching English-based subjects. It is believed that learners lacking LOLT proficiency require more time to comprehend lessons, Seemingly, the underperformance of commercial subjects like accounting and economics in rural schools can be attributed to language barriers as they are taught in English, which is taken as an additional language to most learners in South African rural schools.

It is further stated that LOLT is a critical determinant of learners’ ability to comprehend and excel in commercial subjects such as Business Studies, Accounting, and Economics (Mbude-Shale, 2013). Unfortunately, most learners in rural schools have limited English proficiency, consequently hindering their ability to comprehend content delivered and assessed in English. Therefore, this study hopes to advance a comprehensive understanding of the relationships between the proficiency of language of learning and teaching and the academic performance of commercial subjects in South African rural schools.

Research question: What are the perceptions of commercial subjects’ departmental heads regarding the relationship between LOLT proficiency and learner performance?

2 Definitions of terms

To ensure clarity and consistency throughout this study, the following key terms are defined as they are used in this research:

2.1 FET (further education and training)

In the South African context, the FET Band refers to the educational phase encompassing Grades 10–12. This is the final stage of schooling, culminating in the National Senior Certificate (NSC) examination. This study focuses on commercial subjects (Accounting, Business Studies, and Economics) offered within this band in rural secondary schools.

2.2 LOLT (Language of Learning and Teaching)

Language of Learning and Teaching, also known as the medium of instruction, is the primary language through which curriculum content is delivered and assessed in a school. In the context of this study, LOLT refers to English, which is the official language of instruction for commercial subjects in the participating schools, despite being an additional language for the majority of learners.

2.3 CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning)

Content and Language Integrated Learning is an educational approach where a subject is taught through an additional language, with dual-focused aims: the learning of content and the simultaneous learning of a foreign or second language. In this study, CLIL is proposed as a strategic pedagogical model to help teachers integrate explicit language support (e.g., teaching subject-specific vocabulary and command verbs) with the teaching of commercial subject content, thereby improving both conceptual understanding and academic language proficiency.

2.4 NSC (National Senior Certificate)

The NSC is the primary qualification awarded to learners who successfully complete Grade 12 in the South African school system. The results in commercial subjects for this certificate, as discussed in the literature, are a key indicator of learner performance and the focus of national examination concerns.

2.5 DBE (Department of Basic Education)

This is the national government department in South Africa responsible for overseeing primary and secondary education. In this study, it is referenced as the body that sets curriculum policy and from which research permissions were sought.

3 Literature review

3.1 The influence of language proficiency on learners’ academic performance

Generally, proficiency in LOLT is a critical determinant of learners’ ability to comprehend and excel in any school subject (Bernhofer and Tonin, 2022). This is more critical in commercial subjects such as Business Studies, Accounting and Economics because they have their own jargon, and if not mastered, can lead to poor outcomes for both teachers and learners (Makhoba and Qoyi, 2024). In rural schools, where LOLT (often English) if it is not the learners’ first language, learners face significant challenges in understanding subject-specific terminology and abstract concepts (Omidire, 2020; Makgabo and Modise, 2020). Weak language skills impede not only reading comprehension but also the ability to formulate coherent exam responses, ultimately contributing to lower academic performance (Caraig and Quimbo, 2022). This suggests that learners may struggle to interpret exam questions accurately or apply commercial principles effectively when language barriers exist, highlighting linguistic competence as a foundational requirement for success.

Additionally, the cognitive load imposed by learning in a second language compounds the inherent challenges of commercial subjects, which demand strong analytical and problem-solving skills. When learners expend excessive mental effort deciphering language rather than engaging deeply with content, their conceptual understanding suffers, and this is common in South Africa (Thuketana and Makgabo, 2022). For example, accounting requires precise interpretation of financial terminology, while Economics involves abstract theories, both of which become significantly more difficult when instruction occurs in a language that learners do not fully command. Research in rural schools further indicates that many learners resort to rote memorization without genuine comprehension, leading to superficial learning and poor knowledge retention (Kiswardhani and Ayu, 2021). This disconnection between language proficiency and subject mastery underscores the urgent need for targeted linguistic support in commercial subjects.

3.2 Language barriers in teaching commercial subjects

Teachers in rural schools face significant pedagogical obstacles when teaching English-based subjects due to learners’ limited proficiency in LOLT, and commercial subjects are not an exception (Karali, 2022). In subjects like Economics and accounting, teachers may experience difficulties explaining complex concepts, such as financial calculations for accounting or market dynamics and related graphs in Economics, when learners struggle with basic comprehension of the instructional language. This often forces teachers to simplify content or code-switch between English and learners’ home languages, which, while temporarily helpful (Temesgen and Hailu, 2022), may compromise the depth of curriculum coverage and confuse learners (Mokgalaka, 2024). Additionally, assessing learners becomes problematic, as they may understand concepts but fail to express them effectively in exams due to language constraints (Aizawa, 2024). Ultimately, these challenges contribute to slower lesson pacing, reduced learner engagement, and, ultimately, poorer academic outcomes in commercial subjects.

Furthermore, the lack of adequate teacher training and resources further exacerbates these language-related difficulties. Many teachers have not received specialized training in multilingual teaching strategies or content-language integrated learning, leaving them ill-equipped to bridge the gap between language and subject mastery (Piller, 2024). Moreover, limited access to supplementary materials such as bilingual glossaries or simplified textbooks forces teachers to rely heavily on rote learning methods, which do not foster critical thinking or real-world application of commercial principles such as the laws of supply and demand in economics. Without systemic support, including professional development and tailored teaching aids, teachers remain constrained in their ability to deliver commercial subjects effectively, perpetuating cycles of underperformance in rural schools.

4 Theoretical framework

4.1 Social constructivism theory

The theory employed in this study is the social constructivist theory, which was pioneered by Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934). Serving as the conceptual foundation for the study, social constructivism emphasizes that learning and knowledge are constructed through social interactions and cultural contexts (Vygotsky and Cole, 2018). According to the theory, learning is a collaborative process where individuals, through interaction and sharing of ideas, negotiate meaning together. According to social constructivists, knowledge is seen as something that individuals actively build and reconstruct through their interactions and experiences. Rather than a fixed entity, the theory further suggests that language is a critical instrument for knowledge construction, communication and social interaction (Chand, 1995). Moreover, community beliefs and practices have a significant influence on learning (Saleem et al., 2021).

Therefore, ignoring learners’ everyday language for social interaction in curriculum delivery limits thinking and hinders their ability to connect commercial curriculum content with the world around them. Vygotsky (2012) asserts that language and culture are critical in advancing human intellectual development. It is believed that the learning of concepts is conveyed by means of language and then interpreted and understood by experience and interactions within a cultural setting. Similarly, the learning environment is both psychological and social (Kalina and Powell, 2009). Accentuating that learners’ home language, which is widely used in their everyday interaction with their peers, parents, family members and community around them, must be considered in curriculum delivery for improved academic performance. In the context of this study, social constructivist theory presents a challenge to education stakeholders, as it emphasizes the importance of language, culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. It calls for a commitment to addressing language barriers through systemic educational reforms, such as teacher training programmes and bilingual education models, to improve learner outcomes and prevent further decline in commercial subject enrolment.

5 Methodology

This study adopted a qualitative approach using a multiple case study design to understand the effect of LOLT on the performance of commercial subjects in South African rural schools. The multiple case study design was deemed appropriate as it allowed for an in-depth exploration of the phenomenon within its real-life context across ten different rural schools, enabling the researchers to gather rich, contextual data and identify cross- case patterns (Levitt, 2021).

5.1 Sampling

Ten commercial subject departmental heads from ten secondary schools in the Capricorn South District were purposively selected. Purposive sampling was employed to ensure that all participants were information-rich cases, possessing direct experience and responsibility for the delivery of commercial subjects in the rural school context under investigation (Patton, 2015). The sample size of ten was determined based on the principle of data saturation (Guest et al., 2006). Data saturation is the point in data collection at which no new thematic information or insights are discovered in the analysis. Data collection continued iteratively until saturation was achieved. In this study, after conducting and analyzing the tenth interview, it was determined that no new codes or themes were emerging, and the properties of the existing themes were well-defined and replicated

across the cases. Therefore, a sample of ten participants was deemed sufficient to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon.

5.2 Data collection

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the teachers and departmental heads. The questions included a blend of closed and open-ended questions (Adams, 2015). The participants were allowed to give answers in a way that permitted their voices to be heard. The semi-structured interviews further allowed the researchers to freely ask questions that explored deeper feelings of participants; the researchers did not rely only on the interview schedule. Instead, the researchers continued with the interviews until they felt confident that no new insights, properties and nuances were being discovered during the interviews and then declared saturation.

5.3 Data analysis

The data collected from semi-structured interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis, following the six-phase framework proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006). This systematic approach ensured a rigorous and transparent process for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within the data. The analysis was conducted manually, without the use of software, to maintain an intimate familiarity with the transcripts.

The process unfolded as follows:

1. Familiarizing with the data: The researchers repeatedly read the interview transcripts to immerse themselves in the data, noting down initial ideas and patterns.

2. Generating initial codes: Significant features of the data relevant to the research question were systematically coded across the entire dataset. This involved labeling key phrases, sentences, or concepts from each transcript. Data from all ten participants were coded.

3. Searching for themes: The initial codes were then collated and grouped into potential overarching themes. This involved sorting the different codes into potential themes and gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. A thematic map was created to visualize the relationships between codes and themes.

4. Reviewing themes: This phase involved a two-level review. At Level 1, the coded data extracts for each theme were reviewed to check if they formed a coherent pattern. At Level 2, the entire dataset was revisited to ensure the thematic map accurately reflected the meanings evident in the data as a whole. This process led to the refinement of some themes; some were split, others were combined, and some were discarded.

5. Defining and naming themes: Ongoing analysis was conducted to refine the specifics of each theme and the overall story the analysis told. Clear definitions and concise names were generated for each final theme (e.g., “LOLT as a Barrier to Curriculum Delivery,” “Assessment Challenges due to Language”).

6. Producing the report: The final opportunity for analysis involved selecting vivid, compelling extract examples from the data, relating the analysis back to the research question and literature, and writing up the results in a narrative format.

5.4 Validation strategies

To enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings, several validation strategies were employed:

Peer debriefing: The research team met regularly to discuss the emerging codes and themes. This collaborative process challenged assumptions and provided a check on the interpretation of the data, reducing researcher bias.

Member checking: A summary of the preliminary findings and the identified themes was presented to a subset of the participants (four departmental heads). They confirmed that the interpretations accurately reflected their experiences and perspectives, thereby validating the analysis.

Thick description: The findings section provides direct quotes from participants to illustrate the themes, allowing readers to assess the link between the raw data and the researchers’ interpretations.

5.5 Ethical considerations

Permission to collect data was sourced from the Provincial Department of Basic Education, the schools and from the participants in terms of consent. Ethical Clearance was also sought from the Turfloop Research Ethics Committee (TREC) at the University of Limpopo.

6 Results

Thematic analysis of data from ten in-depth interviews and supporting documents revealed that limited proficiency in LOLT is a pervasive force that reshapes the educational landscape for commercial subjects in rural schools. The findings are structured through four core analytical themes that move from immediate classroom challenges to broader systemic and psychological consequences.

6.1 Theme 1: the pedagogy-comprehension chasm

The most immediate finding was a fundamental disconnect between teaching input and learner comprehension. This chasm constrained the entire instructional process, forcing pedagogical compromises. Participants universally reported that the need to negotiate language barriers significantly diluted the curriculum. One departmental head explained, “We spend more time explaining the words in the question than the accounting concept itself. We are always behind schedule” (Participant 2). This reported slowdown was concretely evidenced in a review of teachers’ lesson plans and year-end reports, which frequently contained notes such as “Re-taught Topic 2 due to language confusion” (Participant 1) and showed consistently lower-than-planned curriculum coverage.

Furthermore, the primary strategy used to bridge this gap, code-switching, was revealed to be a paradoxical practice. While essential for momentary understanding, it was perceived as creating a dependency that hindered the development of subject-specific English literacy. As a participant critically reflected, “We have to code-switch to make them understand now, but then in the exam, they can’t write the answer in proper English. It feels like we are helping them fail” (Participant 3).

6.2 Theme 2: the assessment double bind

In assessment situations, learners faced a “double bind”: they were often unable to accurately interpret questions and, even when they understood the concepts, were unable to articulate their knowledge effectively. A critical issue was the misreading of exam questions due to unfamiliarity with academic command verbs and jargon. “They see ‘discuss the principle’ and they just define it,” noted one departmental head. “They don’t understand what the question is asking them to do. When I explain it in Sepedi, their faces light up, they know it!” (Participant 7).

The most telling evidence of this bind was the clear gap between conceptual understanding and the ability to formalize it in writing. Teachers reported that learners could often explain concepts verbally after an exam but had failed to write a coherent answer. This was powerfully confirmed by a direct analysis of examination scripts, which showed answers containing correct ideas expressed in fragmented English or colloquialisms that rendered them incorrect. This triangulation proves that poor performance is often a failure of academic expression in LOLT, not always a lack of knowledge.

6.3 Theme 3: the systemic neglect of teacher preparedness and resources

The data uncovered a critical systemic failure: teachers are thrust into these complex multilingual classrooms without the requisite training or appropriate resources, leaving them to develop ad-hoc, survivalist strategies. A pervasive sentiment was the complete absence of formal training in multilingual pedagogy for content subjects. “No one ever taught us how to do this,” stated one participant. “We are just trying things to survive in the classroom. There is no policy, no workshop on how to teach Economics to English second- language learners, just us figuring it out” (Participant 6).

Compounding this was a severe scarcity of linguistically accessible teaching materials. Teachers reported a complete lack of bilingual glossaries or simplified textbooks, forcing them to become full-time translators. “The textbooks are written for native English speakers. The sentences are too long, and the vocabulary is too dense. We must spend the first 10 minutes of every lesson just breaking down one paragraph” (Participant 9). This lack of systemic support fundamentally undermines their ability to deliver the curriculum effectively.

6.4 Theme 4: the psychological and motivational consequences for learners

Beyond academic performance, the language barrier inflicts a significant psychological toll, eroding learner confidence and influencing their educational trajectories. Teachers observed that the constant struggle leads to a crippling erosion of self-efficacy. “You can see they lose heart,” one participant shared. “They stop trying to answer because they are afraid of sounding foolish. They have the intelligence, but the language makes them feel stupid” (Participant 5). This silence in the classroom was a commonly reported indicator of diminished confidence.

Consequently, this fear and frustration directly shape subject choice. Departmental heads linked the language-based difficulty directly to strategic avoidance and declining enrolment. “The learners tell us, Ma’am, I will take Tourism instead. Business Studies has too much reading.” “They are making subject choices based on language fear, not their ability or interest” (Participant 10). This finding highlights the long-term impact of the LOLT issue, potentially steering learners away from critical commercial fields before they even have a chance to excel.

7 Discussion

This study set out to investigate the perceptions of departmental heads regarding the relationship between LOLT proficiency and learner performance in commercial subjects within South African rural schools. The findings paint a complex picture of a system where

language is not merely a medium of instruction but a central determinant of educational success, teacher efficacy, and learner trajectories. The following discussion interprets these findings by critically engaging with existing literature, exploring their implications, and considering alternative explanations.

7.1 The pedagogy-comprehension chasm and the systemic failure in teacher support

Our finding that limited LOLT proficiency creates a fundamental disconnect in the classroom, forcing teachers into a cycle of slowed pacing and compensatory code switching, strongly aligns with existing research. Karali (2022), Omidire (2020) similarly identified pedagogical obstacles and comprehension challenges in rural, multilingual contexts. However, our study extends this literature by uncovering the systemic underpinnings of this chasm. While previous work often highlights the phenomenon of code-switching (Setati et al., 2002; Temesgen and Hailu, 2022), our data reveals the teacher’s perspective of its paradoxical nature as a necessary yet potentially detrimental coping mechanism in the absence of proper support.

This finding has critical practical implications. It suggests that simply telling teachers to “use English only” is counterproductive, yet laissez-faire acceptance of code-switching without strategic guidance is equally inadequate. The core issue, as our data on the lack of training and resources indicates, is a systemic failure to equip teachers for the reality of their multilingual classrooms. This directly supports Piller’s (2024) call for every teacher to be a language teacher, but specifies that for commercial subjects, this requires content language integrated learning (CLIL) strategies tailored to disciplines like Accounting and Economics, not just general language support.

7.2 The assessment double bind and the problem of “academic language”

The “double bind” in assessment, where learners both misunderstand questions and cannot articulate answers, provides a nuanced explanation for underperformance that moves beyond simple metrics of “knowing” or “not knowing.” This finding resonates with Caraig and Quimbo’s (2022), p. 1993 work on how weak language skills impede the formulation of coherent exam responses. Our contribution is the empirical demonstration, through triangulated interviews and document analysis, of the precise mechanism of failure: the misinterpretation of command verbs and the inability to translate conceptual understanding into discipline-specific academic language.

A potential counterargument is that poor performance is due to a lack of conceptual understanding rather than a language barrier. However, the evidence from participant accounts of learners’ post-exam verbal explanations and our analysis of scripts containing correct ideas couched in incorrect language strongly refutes this. This underscores that assessment in its current form may be measuring English academic literacy as much as it measures mastery of commercial principles. The practical implication is urgent: assessment modalities must be re-evaluated. Could practical examinations, oral assessments, or bilingual glossaries of key terms provide a more valid measure of commercial knowledge? This finding challenges the assumption that a single, high stakes written exam in English is the only valid form of assessment in this context.

7.3 The psychologicaltoll and its impact on educational pathways

Perhaps the most profound finding is the psychological impact of the language barrier, which erodes confidence and leads to the strategic avoidance of commercial subjects. This shifts the discussion beyond academic performance to issues of learner identity and educational justice. While Bernhofer and Tonin (2022) establish LOLT as a critical determinant of performance, our study shows it is also a critical determinant of subject choice and future opportunity.

This finding forces a confrontation with a difficult question: Is the decline in commercial subject enrolment solely due to a lack of learner interest or aptitude, or is it a rational response to an insurmountable barrier? Our data suggests the latter. When learners opt for “less language-heavy” subjects, they are not displaying a lack of commercial intelligence but are making a strategic retreat from a system that sets them up for failure. The practical implication is that efforts to bolster commercial subjects must include confidence-building and explicit demystification of the subjects’ linguistic demands. Furthermore, this provides a powerful, human-centric argument for the systemic reforms suggested in our conclusion.

7.4 Theoretical implications

Our findings powerfully affirm the social constructivist framework (Vygotsky, 2012). The theory posits that learning is a social process mediated by language and shaped by culture. The struggles we documented are a direct result of disconnecting the learning process from the learners’ primary linguistic and cultural tools for constructing meaning (their home language). The theory suggests that for learning to be effective, it must connect with the learner’s everyday experiences. The current practice of using English only instruction and assessment in communities where it is not spoken socially creates the very “chasm” our data describes. Therefore, our study does not just use social constructivism

as a framework; it provides a compelling case study of what happens when its core principles are violated.

8 Limitations of the study

While this study provides valuable insights into the impact of LOLT on commercial subjects, several limitations must be acknowledged to contextualize the findings and suggest directions for future research.

8.1 Methodological and perspectival constraints

A primary limitation stems from the reliance on a single data source: departmental heads. Although document analysis was incorporated to triangulate findings related to curriculum pacing and assessment responses, the core data reflecting perceptions, challenges, and systemic issues came exclusively from interviews with individuals in a management role. This design necessarily excludes the direct voices of learners themselves, who are the ultimate subjects of this educational challenge. Their first-hand accounts of struggling with comprehension and assessment would have added an indispensable layer of depth and validation to the findings.

8.2 Researcher positionality and potential bias

As qualitative researchers embedded in the South African educational context, our own positions and assumptions constitute a potential limitation. Our prior knowledge of the systemic challenges faced by rural schools may have unconsciously influenced the interview questioning and thematic analysis, potentially leading to an emphasis on confirming pre-understood challenges rather than discovering unexpected ones. While measures like peer debriefing were employed to mitigate this, the interpretation of data remains filtered through our academic and professional lenses. A more reflexive approach, explicitly documenting our positionality throughout the research process, could have further strengthened the study’s rigor.

8.3 Context-specific generalizability

As noted, the study was conducted in one district of Limpopo Province. The findings are therefore deeply context-specific to the linguistic and socio-economic realities of these rural schools. While the results may be transferable to similar settings, they cannot be statistically generalized to all rural schools across South Africa’s diverse provinces, where linguistic profiles, resource availability, and teacher training may differ significantly.

8.4 Scope of literature

Finally, the availability of literature focusing specifically on the intersection of LOLT and commercial subjects at the FET level was limited. This necessitated drawing on research from other subjects and fields, which, while informative, may not fully capture the unique terminological and conceptual demands of Accounting, Business Studies, and Economics.

9 Recommendations

Based on the specific findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed for policymakers, curriculum planners, and school management. These are designed to be concrete, actionable, and directly responsive to the challenges identified in the teaching and learning of commercial subjects within rural South African schools.

9.1 Teacher development and support

The finding that teachers lack training and resources necessitates a move from generic workshops to specialized, subject-specific support. We recommend that Provincial Education Departments implement mandatory in-service training on Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) specifically for commercial subject teachers. This training must focus on practical strategies for explicitly teaching the core command verbs and jargon of Accounting, Business Studies, and Economics, developing language-aware lesson plans that pre-emptively scaffold linguistic challenges, and using graphic organizers and structured writing frames to make abstract concepts accessible. Furthermore, the Department of Basic Education should commission the creation and distribution of bilingual glossaries and simplified reader packs for FET commercial subjects. These resources would provide official translations and clear, simple English definitions for key terms, reducing the translation burden on individual teachers and ensuring consistency across schools.

9.2 Assessment and curriculum delivery

The “assessment double bind” requires a re-evaluation of how we measure understanding to ensure we are testing commercial knowledge, not just English proficiency. We recommend that Umalusi and the DBE pilot and research the efficacy of translanguaging in assessment. This could involve providing question papers with key terms and instructions in both English and the dominant home language of the region, while still requiring answers to be written in English to maintain the link to global business discourse.

This directly addresses the issue of question misinterpretation. Additionally, schools and subject advisors should be encouraged to diversify assessment modalities by including a percentage of oral assessments or practical projects in formal assessment tasks. Allowing learners to explain an economic concept or demonstrate understanding through a business plan can provide a more valid measure of conceptual grasp, mitigating the knowing-showing divide identified in the study.

9.3 Learner support and subject promotion

To counter the psychological toll and strategic avoidance of commercial subjects, targeted learner-centric interventions are needed. We recommend that schools establish Commercial Subject Literacy Labs. These would function as after-school or in-class sessions focused not on content repetition, but on building skills in reading comprehension of commercial texts, academic writing for business, and building confidence in using commercial terminology. This directly addresses the erosion of self-efficacy by equipping learners with the specific linguistic tools for success. Concurrently, district officials and schools should launch awareness and demystification campaigns aimed at Grade 9 learners. These campaigns should explicitly address the language challenge, framing it as a skill that can be mastered with the right support, rather than an innate barrier, to prevent learners from self-selecting out of these critical fields due to fear.

10 Conclusion

This study provides compelling evidence that the Language of Learning and Teaching is far more than a neutral medium of instruction in South African rural schools; it is a critical and active determinant of academic success in commercial subjects. The findings reveal a multi-layered crisis in which linguistic barriers create a chasm in pedagogy, distort the assessment of knowledge, demoralize learners, and are perpetuated by a systemic neglect of teacher support. The underperformance and declining enrolment in Business Studies, Accounting, and Economics are not, therefore, simply a function of learner ability or teacher effort. They are, to a significant degree, a direct consequence of an educational system that requires learners to learn complex new concepts in a language they have not yet mastered.

The implications are profound. When learners struggle to comprehend a question in Economics, not because of a flawed economic theory, but because of unfamiliar English syntax, the system is failing them. When a promising learner abandons a path in accounting due to language-induced anxiety rather than a lack of numerical skill, the nation loses a potential asset. This study concludes that failing to address the LOLT challenge is not merely an educational oversight but a strategic failure that undermines the development of commercial and economic literacy in the very communities that stand to benefit from it most.

Consequently, the status quo is untenable. The recommendations put forth for targeted CLIL teacher training, linguistically sensible assessment models, and dedicated learner support are not merely optional interventions but essential pillars for a more equitable and effective educational framework. Addressing the language barrier in commercial subjects is a fundamental prerequisite for unlocking the potential of rural learners, revitalizing these critical fields of study, and fulfilling the promise of a truly inclusive and enabling education system.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Turfloop Research Ethics Committee (TREC). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

TM: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft. JM: Writing – review & editing. SN: Writing – original draft. MT: Writing – original draft.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was funded by National Research Foundation.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Medwin Dibakwane Sepadi for his invaluable advice and support during the manuscript revision.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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