Career future perceptions of university students with disabilities: a cross-sectional study in Turkiye

Karaca, Esra; Baykara Mat, Seda Tugba; Bastarcan, Cisem

doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1711779

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Front. Educ., 14 January 2026

Sec. Special Educational Needs

Volume 10 - 2025 | https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1711779

This article is part of the Research TopicEducation To Enhance The Inclusion Of All LearnersView all 23 articles

Career future perceptions of university students with disabilities: a cross-sectional study in Turkiye

Esra Karaca¹

Seda Tugba Baykara Mat¹^*

Cisem Bastarcan²

¹Department of Nursing, Beykent University, Büyükçekmece, Türkiye
²Department of Midwifery, Beykent University, Büyükçekmece, Türkiye

Career futures of disabled students in Turkiye University students with disabilities often face unique barriers when envisioning and preparing for their career futures, making it important to understand the factors shaping their perceptions. This cross-sectional descriptive study investigated the career future perceptions of 121 disabled students enrolled at a private university in Istanbul, Türkiye. Data were collected through a demographic information form and the Career Future Scale (CFS), which measures adaptability, optimism, and perceived knowledge. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, independent t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and post-hoc tests. The mean total CFS score was 85.26 ± 15.61, with subscale means of 38.26 ± 8.25 for adaptability, 38.29 ± 7.69 for optimism, and 8.72 ± 2.96 for perceived knowledge. Significant differences emerged across demographic and disability-related variables: age and disability type were associated with total scores; age, living arrangement, disability type, and severity influenced adaptability; age and disability type influenced optimism; and age, gender, region of upbringing, and disability type influenced perceived knowledge. These findings highlight the importance of tailored career counseling, mentorship, and accessible resources to support the career development and equity of disabled university students.

1 Introduction

Health is defined not merely as the absence of disease but as a state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing (World Health Organization, 1947). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), disability encompasses impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions arising from physical, mental, intellectual, or sensory conditions (Schramme, 2023). Global data from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union indicate that approximately one billion people—about 15% of the world's population—live with some form of disability (OECD, 2022).

In the literature, disability is defined in various ways, with one of the most comprehensive descriptions provided in Turkish Law No. 5378 on Disabled Persons. This law defines a disabled individual as a person who, due to congenital or acquired causes, experiences difficulties adapting to social life and meeting daily needs because of physical, mental, psychological, sensory, or social impairments, and who requires protection, care, rehabilitation, counseling, and support services. Disabilities are typically categorized into several groups, including: physical disabilities, orthopedic disabilities, visual impairments, hearing impairments, speech and language disorders, chronic illnesses, and intellectual disabilities (Official Gazette, 2005).

Disabled individuals face considerable challenges in social adaptation and independent daily living, including within higher education environments. According to the Council of Higher Education (CoHE), 51,647 disabled students are currently enrolled in Turkish universities, of whom 32% are female and 68% are male. The majority (89%) study in open education programs, with only 7% in formal education, 1% in distance education, and 3% in second education programs. Students with physical disabilities, chronic illnesses, and visual impairments constitute the largest proportion (Council of Higher Education Barrier-Free Student Commission, 2020).

In the United States and European Union countries, inclusive education is widely emphasized (T. C. Ministry of Family and Social Policies, 2016; Ministry of Family Social Policies, 2016). However, Eurostat (2019) data reveal that higher education completion rates among disabled individuals remain 15–25% lower than among their non-disabled peers. Each year, hundreds of disabled individuals graduate from Turkish universities, yet institutional support for their transition to employment remains limited (Onyishi, 2024). The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2007), particularly Article 27, underscores the right to work for disabled persons and the necessity of ensuring equal employment opportunities. Moreover, the International Labour Organization (2019) estimates that the underrepresentation of disabled individuals in the workforce leads to a loss of 3–7% in gross domestic product.

In Türkiye, findings from the 2011 Population and Housing Survey (Turkish Statistical Institute) revealed a labor force participation rate of 35.4% among men and 12.5% among women in households with at least one disabled member, compared to an overall participation rate of 53% in the general population (Turkish Statistical Institute, 2011). These figures highlight a persistent employment gap for disabled individuals.

Employment outcomes for disabled university graduates are further shaped by societal perceptions, access to career guidance, and institutional support (Bellacicco and Pavone, 2020). In health-related professions such as nursing, understanding the career aspirations, strengths, and challenges of disabled students is critical (Smeltzer, 2007). Research suggests that many disabled young people experience difficulties in career planning and goal setting (Sowers and Swank, 2017), and that enhancing self-confidence and addressing uncertainties about the future can foster motivation and help them set new goals (Forber-Pratt and Zape, 2017).

Career development plays a pivotal role in shaping individuals' personal identities, social integration, and future employability. For students with disabilities, this process often involves navigating complex barriers related to accessibility, self-efficacy, and institutional support (Morina and Biagiotti, 2022). Across higher education systems, particularly in Türkiye, students with disabilities continue to face challenges in exploring career interests, identifying opportunities, and preparing for the transition from university to work. While global policies such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities emphasize inclusivity and equal participation, real-world practices still lag behind (United Nations, 2007).

In Türkiye, higher education offers various pathways including open education (distance-based and asynchronous programs allowing flexible participation) and formal education (on-campus and structured curricula). However, despite these options, the accessibility of such systems and their relevance to career preparedness remain limited for students with disabilities. The Council of Higher Education (CoHE) reported that while approximately 51,000 students with disabilities are enrolled in universities, most study via open education programs, highlighting a significant gap in inclusive formal learning opportunities (Council of Higher Education Barrier-Free Student Commission, 2020).

Previous studies have underscored that students with disabilities often experience reduced confidence in career decision-making and a lack of structured transition programs that bridge academic education and employment (Lindsay et al., 2018; Morina and Biagiotti, 2022). Transition-focused interventions—such as career counseling, mentorship, and internship programs—have proven effective in promoting self-efficacy and career optimism (Ginevra et al., 2023). Nonetheless, there remains a scarcity of research investigating how these factors interact in Türkiye's higher education context.

Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) has been increasingly applied in career development studies to examine relationships between latent constructs such as self-regulation, proactive behavior, and sustainable career success (Hair et al., 2021; Qalati et al., 2025; Badwy et al., 2025). Incorporating insights from such models provides a contemporary lens for understanding how adaptability, optimism, and perceived knowledge contribute to the career futures of students with disabilities. Therefore, this study aims to fill the empirical gap by examining these dimensions and their sociodemographic correlates among university students with disabilities in Türkiye.

2 Hypotheses

H1: Career perceptions differ according to the type of disability and educational level among university students with disabilities.

3 Method

3.1 Research design

This study was designed as a descriptive and cross-sectional study. The methodological strength of this study lies in its inclusive and accessibility-oriented design, which ensured participation from individuals with multiple types of disabilities. The use of validated scales adapted to the Turkish population, combined with stratified representation from diverse academic faculties, enhances both the reliability and contextual richness of the findings.

3.2 Study setting and population

The study was conducted with disabled university students enrolled at a private (foundation) university in Istanbul, Türkiye. Participants were reached through the university's Disability Student Unit and relevant coordinators. The entire population of 121 students registered with these units constituted the study universe, and no sampling method was applied. The study announcement was planned to be disseminated via email. Following initial contact, face-to-face data collection was scheduled within predetermined dates.

3.2.1 Inclusion criteria

• Being a student at the relevant foundation university

• Being aged 18 years or older

• Holding an official disability report

3.2.2 Exclusion criteria

• Submission of more than one form by the same participant

• Forms containing incomplete or inaccurate information

• Refusal to participate or failure to sign the informed consent form

3.3 Data collection

Data collection began by contacting the university's disability services unit to determine the number of actively enrolled students with disabilities. After obtaining the necessary permissions, the administrators of each academic department were approached, and interview requests were forwarded to students with disabilities within those departments. Participants who agreed to join the study were contacted by phone to arrange an interview date and location. Various communication methods, including email and messaging platforms, were utilized to reach individuals with hearing impairments. Interviews were scheduled flexibly to accommodate participants' preferences and specific needs.

Face-to-face data collection occurred in accessible and comfortable environments such as university offices or designated study rooms equipped with assistive devices when necessary. For participants with mobility impairments, interviews were conducted in wheelchair-accessible spaces. Visual aids were provided for participants with visual impairments, and simplified language materials were available for those with cognitive disabilities.

Before each interview, participants were informed about the study's purpose, and a voluntary informed consent form was signed.

3.4 Data collection instruments

Data in this study were collected using a Sociodemographic Information Form and the Career Futures Scale (CFS).

The Sociodemographic Information Form consists of nine items designed to gather data on participants' demographic characteristics, educational background, and disability-related information.

To evaluate participants' career goals, the CFS developed by Rottinghaus, Day, and Borgen was employed (Rottinghaus et al., 2005). The scale aims to assess individuals' positive attitudes toward career planning and comprises three subscales: career adaptability, career optimism, and perceived knowledge of the job market. The career adaptability and career optimism subscales each contain 11 items, while the perceived knowledge of the job market subscale includes three items. The instrument consists of 25 items in total, rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1 point) to “strongly agree” (5 points). Eight items (items 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20, and 24) are reverse-scored. Possible total scores range from 25 to 125, with higher scores indicating more positive attitudes toward career planning. Example items include: “I can adapt to changes that occur in my career plans” (Career Adaptability), “I believe that I will be successful in my future career” (Career Optimism), and “I understand the job market and employment trends in my field” (Perceived Knowledge). Higher scores indicate greater confidence and positivity toward future career development.

The Turkish adaptation of the CFS was conducted by Kalafat (2012), who confirmed the scale's reliability and validity in a sample of university students (Cronbach's α = 0.88).

In the original study, Rottinghaus et al. conducted a test–retest analysis with 36 university students over a 3 week interval, reporting correlation coefficients of 0.85 for career adaptability, 0.63 for career optimism, and 0.69 for perceived knowledge. Internal consistency coefficients were 0.85 for career adaptability, 0.87 for career optimism, and 0.73 for perceived knowledge. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded a Comparative Fit Index (CFI) of 0.95 and a Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMSR) of 0.069, indicating an excellent model fit.

Internal consistency, item analysis, factor analysis, and criterion-related validity analyses were conducted. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients obtained were 0.83 for career adaptability, 0.82 for career optimism, and 0.62 for perceived knowledge, with an overall internal consistency of 0.88, demonstrating satisfactory reliability for use in Turkish populations. The adaptation process included forward–backward translation, expert panel review, and pilot testing. The current study employed this validated version.

3.5 Analysis

Descriptive statistics, including frequency and percentage analyses, were used to determine the demographic characteristics of the participants. Mean and standard deviation statistics were utilized to examine the scale. To assess whether the research variables exhibited a normal distribution, Kurtosis and Skewness values were analyzed, revealing that the variables were normally distributed. Parametric methods were used for data analysis. The relationships between continuous variables were examined using Pearson correlation analysis. To investigate differences in scale levels based on participants' demographic characteristics, independent sample t-tests, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and post hoc analyses (Tukey and LSD) were performed.

3.6 Ethical considerations

The data of the study were collected after obtaining ethics committee approval from the Social Sciences Ethics Committee of a foundation university (Date: 14.06.2022 No: 236). Relevant institutional permissions were obtained (Date: 19.10.2022 No: 77836). This study adhered to the highest ethical standards to ensure the protection and wellbeing of all participants. Before commencing the study, ethical approval was obtained from the relevant institutional review board. Informed consent was collected from all participants, clearly outlining the study's objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Participation was entirely voluntary, and respondents had the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any repercussions.

Confidentiality and anonymity were strictly maintained throughout the research process. All collected data were securely stored, and identifying information was removed during data analysis to protect participants' privacy. The findings were reported in aggregate form to prevent the identification of individual respondents.

Furthermore, the study followed the ethical guidelines set forth by the Declaration of Helsinki and complied with data protection regulations. Efforts were made to ensure that the research did not cause psychological or emotional distress to participants. Any necessary accommodations were provided to support the participation of disabled individuals, ensuring equal access and inclusion throughout the research process.

4 Limitations

This study has several limitations. First, the sample is limited to disabled university students from a single private university in Istanbul, which restricts the generalizability of the findings to other regions or public institutions. Second, the study relies on self-reported data, which may introduce response bias due to participants‘ subjective interpretations or social desirability. Third, the study's cross-sectional design provides a snapshot of participants' career perceptions at one point in time, limiting the ability to capture changes over time. Lastly, while the study examines various disability types, some categories have few participants, reducing the statistical power to detect differences between groups.

4.1 Bias

Several strategies were implemented throughout the research process to minimize bias. First, data collection instruments were designed to be neutral and inclusive, avoiding leading questions and assumptions about participants' abilities or experiences. Second, a diverse research team with expertise in disability studies ensured the language and methodology were accessible and unbiased. Additionally, participants were selected using purposive sampling to ensure representation across various disability types and educational levels.

Researcher bias was mitigated through regular peer debriefings and reflexivity practices, encouraging critical reflection on potential biases.

4.2 Research team

The research team included the Dean of the Faculty of Health Sciences, a representative from the Disability Support Unit, a lecturer, and all the researchers were nurses. Each team member possesses extensive clinical and academic experience, contributing to a comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to the study. Their combined expertise ensured that the study's design, data collection, and analysis were conducted with sensitivity and scientific rigor.

5 Results

Of the students who participated in the study, 33.1% were aged 18–20 years, 37.2% were aged 21–22 years, 15.7% were aged 23–24 years, and 14.0% were aged 25 years or older. Nearly half of the participants were female (47.1%), while 52.9% were male. The majority (70.2%) reported that their income was equal to their expenses, and 47.1% had grown up in a large city or metropolitan area. Furthermore, 62.0% were living with their families.

Regarding disability types, 24.0% had a chronic illness, 22.3% had a visual impairment, 19.0% had a physical disability, and 16.5% had a hearing impairment. More than half of the students (56.2%) reported having a moderate level of disability (Table 1).

Table 1

Table 1. Findings related to the descriptive characteristics of the participants (n = 121).

When examining the distribution of the CFS and its sub dimension mean scores among the participating students, the total score mean was found to be 85.26 ± 15.61, the career adaptability mean was 38.26 ± 8.25, the career optimism mean was 38.29 ± 7.69, and the perceived knowledge subdimension mean was 8.72 ± 2.96 (Table 2).

Table 2

Table 2. Career future scale scores.

Students' descriptive characteristics (Table 3) revealed several significant differences. The total CFS scores varied significantly by age and type of disability (p < 0.05). Similarly, scores on the Career Adaptability sub dimension differed by age, current living arrangement, type, and degree of disability (p < 0.05), while Career Optimism scores showed significant differences according to age and type of disability (p < 0.05). For the Perceived Knowledge sub dimension, significant differences were identified based on age, gender, region of upbringing, and type of disability (p < 0.05). The overall mean CFS score (85.26 ± 15.61) indicates a moderate-to-high level of positive career perception among participants. Correspondingly, mean scores for Career Adaptability (38.26 ± 8.25) and Career Optimism (38.29 ± 7.69) suggest that most students felt capable of managing career-related changes and maintaining a positive outlook toward their professional futures. In contrast, the relatively lower Perceived Knowledge score (8.72 ± 2.96) implies that students may have limited awareness of labor market dynamics and available career opportunities, highlighting the importance of enhanced informational and institutional support mechanisms.

Table 3

Table 3. Findings on the comparison of participants' career future scale scores with their descriptive characteristics.

6 Discussion

Career development is a multifaceted process shaped by individual characteristics, environmental conditions, and available support mechanisms. For university students with disabilities, career planning and transition to the labor market are further influenced by factors such as disability type, perceived self-efficacy, access to resources, and societal attitudes (Lopez-Gavira et al., 2025; Nolan and Gleeson, 2017). Understanding these dynamics is crucial for developing interventions that not only enhance students' adaptability and optimism but also address external barriers, thereby facilitating equitable participation in the workforce. In this context, the present study contributes to the limited body of research in Türkiye by examining the career futures perceptions of disabled university students and their associations with sociodemographic and disability-related variables.

Individuals who choose their profession willingly and in alignment with their interests and competencies tend to perform their occupational duties more effectively and attentively. This increases both job satisfaction and the quality of services provided (Karadaş et al., 2017). However, individuals with disabilities may experience decreased motivation, reluctance to engage in work, and feelings of inadequacy, which can lead to social withdrawal (Öztabak, 2018). In this study, 36.4% of the students were enrolled in vocational schools, 22.3% in engineering faculties, 11.6% in faculties of arts and sciences, and 9.9% in health sciences faculties. Ogurlu et al. (2015) also found that 76% of students preferred engineering programs. Prior studies have indicated that when accessibility and support systems are improved, individuals with disabilities demonstrate higher academic motivation and persistence (Sevinç and Çay, 2017). These findings suggest that supporting disabled students in educational settings can strengthen the link between career preferences and employment opportunities.

In the present study, the mean CFS score was 85.26 ± 15.61, with subscale means of 38.26 ± 8.25 for career adaptability, 38.29 ± 7.69 for career optimism, and 8.72 ± 2.96 for perceived knowledge. Comparable results were reported by Çinar et al. (2021) among final year nursing students, while Basmaci et al., 2020 found high adaptability and optimism scores among engineering students. These parallels indicate that, similar to their non-disabled peers, disabled students maintain positive expectations about the future and possess strong motivation for career development.

Studies in Germany and Spain have highlighted the importance of both internal factors (self-perception, self-efficacy, flexibility) and external factors (family support, university services, internship experiences) in career development among graduates with disabilities (Lopez-Gavira et al., 2025). In Ireland, Nolan and Gleeson (2017) found that a lack of job market knowledge and practical experience represented major barriers to employment transitions. The relatively lower perceived knowledge scores in our study suggest that, despite high adaptability and optimism, students may lack sufficient information about the labor market. This aligns with prior evidence underscoring the need to enhance access to career-related information and experiences through counseling, internships, and mentoring.

Our findings also revealed significant differences in total CFIS scores based on age and disability type, with students with chronic illnesses scoring higher than those with other disabilities. Previous research has emphasized the role of disability type in shaping educational and employment transitions (Liao et al., 2024). For example, students with physical disabilities may have higher adaptability scores, while those with intellectual or learning disabilities may report lower self-efficacy and adaptability (Brehmer et al., 2022).

Similarly, career adaptability scores varied significantly by age, current living arrangement, disability type, and disability severity. Younger students often demonstrate lower decision-making confidence and planning skills, whereas older students benefit from greater exposure to environmental resources, work experience, and support systems (Amalia and Kurniawati, 2020; Andersén et al., 2018). The finding that students with moderate disabilities had higher adaptability scores than those with severe disabilities is consistent with studies highlighting the cumulative impact of disability severity on career perceptions.

Career optimism scores also differed significantly by age and disability type. Consistent with previous research (Çinar et al., 2021; Lopez-Gavira et al., 2025), older students reported higher optimism, likely reflecting greater self-awareness, professional orientation, and experiential learning. Students with chronic illnesses exhibited more optimistic views about their careers compared with those with sensory impairments, a pattern also observed in Nolan and Gleeson (2017) study.

Lastly, perceived knowledge scores varied significantly by age, gender, region of upbringing, and disability type. Students from rural areas tended to report lower perceived knowledge of the job market, consistent with findings linking regional disparities to unequal access to career resources (Lopez-Gavira et al., 2025). Interestingly, female students in our sample had higher perceived knowledge scores than males, contrasting with some prior studies that associate gender-based disparities with restricted career information access. These results suggest the need for targeted interventions, such as gender-sensitive career counseling, region-specific information programs, and disability-type-tailored guidance, to address informational and experiential gaps in career preparation. The findings confirm that students with disabilities in Türkiye exhibit generally positive career attitudes, though their perceived knowledge about employment remains limited. This aligns with international literature showing that informational barriers and limited transition programs reduce preparedness for work-life transitions (Lindsay et al., 2018; Morina and Biagiotti, 2022). Moreover, the demographic influences observed—such as higher optimism among older students and those with chronic illnesses—echo previous research highlighting the interplay between age, experience, and disability type (Ginevra et al., 2023).

Consistent with studies by Çinar et al. (2021) and Basmaci et al., 2020, non-disabled university students also tend to show high optimism and adaptability scores, suggesting that contextual rather than ability-based factors may underlie these perceptions. The numeric results in this study should therefore be understood as relative indicators of psychological readiness and confidence in career planning rather than as absolute measures, consistent with evidence highlighting the mediating roles of career adaptability and future-oriented self-efficacy in shaping life satisfaction and career outcomes (Ran et al., 2022; Zeng et al., 2022).

7 Implications

The implications of these findings extend to educational policymakers, university administrators, and employers. Grounded in career construction theory, the results demonstrate that adaptability and optimism among students with disabilities are shaped not only by individual attributes but also by contextual factors such as living arrangements and regional upbringing. This underscores the importance of integrating environmental and institutional support mechanisms into career development frameworks. Accordingly, higher education institutions should implement comprehensive career development programs that include accessible mentorship networks, structured internship opportunities, and targeted counseling services. At the policy level, stronger collaboration between universities and industry partners can foster inclusive transition-to-work pathways, while training faculty and administrative staff in disability awareness and inclusive advising practices can further enhance student engagement and employment outcomes.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Istanbul Beykent University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics for the Social and Human Sciences. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

EK: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Project administration. SB: Conceptualization, Data curation, Methodology, Visualization, Writing – original draft. CB: Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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References

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