Yuanbo Liu
Fariza Khalid
Nurfaradilla Mohamad Nasri- Faculty of Education, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
In the context of rapid social development and ongoing national education modernisation, the English curriculum is expected to shift from traditional knowledge transmission to cultivating students’ core competencies, necessitating more effective pedagogical models. Grounded in the Understanding by Design (UbD) framework, this study examines how a UbD-based curriculum module (UbD module) can be applied to enhance college students’ 4C skills—creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration. This study employs a quasi-experimental design, supplemented by semi-structured interviews. Quantitative data were collected from 119 college students via a questionnaire and analyzed using both independent-samples and paired-samples t-tests. Qualitative data were obtained through semi-structured interviews and analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings suggest that a UbD module is more effective than traditional methods in enhancing students’ creativity (p < 0.05, d = 0.52), critical thinking (p < 0.05, d = 0.26), and collaboration (p < 0.05, d = 0.36), while gains in communication were non-significant (p > 0.05). This study addresses the limited application of the UbD framework in Chinese college English education and offers an operational teaching paradigm English reform and 4C skills development.
1 Introduction
With the rapid social development and ongoing national education modernisation, pure language skills training conducted in college English teaching can no longer meet the demand for talents in the new era (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2018). Amid increasingly intense global competition, national development has imposed higher demands on college English curricula to cultivate well-rounded and globally competent graduates (Law, 2014). In the early 21st century, the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21) proposed a widely recognized framework stating that future learners should possess four core competencies (known as the 4C skills): creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration (Bellanca and Brandt, 2010).
In alignment with the global trends, the policy document released by Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (2018) also calls for college English teaching to integrate core competencies. What’s more, existing research suggests that every dimension of 4C skills plays an important role in English learning. For example, creativity enables learners to generate ideas and apply language skills flexibly (Ramasamy et al., 2023). Critical thinking can help learners analyze the text deeply and critically evaluate the points presented, thereby improving their comprehension ability and argumentative writing skills (Thornhill-Miller et al., 2023). Communication refers to using oral and written English to convey meaning precisely and appropriately, which is the core objective of language teaching (Aswad et al., 2024). And students may have more opportunities for negotiating meaning through collaborative learning approaches, which promote the development of language skills (Alcivar Loor et al., 2024). In a word, integrating 4C skills into English instruction not only aligns with the college curriculum standards of improving students’ transferable literacy but also serves as a crucial approach for implementing national education policies.
Despite recent policies (Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, 2018, 2019; National Advisory Committee on College Foreign Language Teaching, Ministry of Education, 2020) that have emphasized core competencies, such as the 4C skills, prior research suggests that these requirements remain at the conceptual level, lacking specific guidance for instructors (Deng et al., 2024). Additionally, the exam-oriented ecology of college English education often constrains teachers’ ability to translate policy intentions into classroom practice (Luo and Chan, 2023). Therefore, the gap between policy goals and actual teaching practice remains. What’s more, in the context of Chinese college English education, traditional pedagogy often emphasizes rote learning and exam preparation, limiting opportunities for students to develop core literacies (Deng, 2023). Therefore, a curriculum that explicitly integrates the 4C skills is particularly needed.
In light of these persistent implementation challenges, Understanding by Design (UbD), a backward curriculum design framework that focuses on student understanding and performance (Wiggins and McTighe, 1998), has gradually been applied in curriculum design to integrate core competencies in language education (Harmon et al., 2024). In this context, compared with only examining each skill individually, developing them as a whole set is more effective in enhancing students’ comprehensive quality (Trilling and Fadel, 2009; Jumayeva, 2025). In fact, in the real learning and language application settings, the four different competencies are interrelated and mutually promoted (Fatmawati et al., 2019). However, few studies have explored how a UbD-based curriculum can holistically support 4C skills development in college English contexts.
To address these gaps, this study investigates the integrated development of 4C skills and examines the localized application of the UbD framework in the Chinese college English curriculum.
Accordingly, this study aims to answer the following question: To what extent does the UbD-based curriculum improve students’ 4C skills (creativity, critical thinking, communication, collaboration?).
To further examine the impact of the UbD-based curriculum, four hypotheses were proposed, each corresponding to one of the 4C skills:
H1: The UbD-based English curriculum module will have a positive effect on developing students’ creativity.
H2: The UbD-based English curriculum module will have a positive effect on developing students’ critical thinking.
H3: The UbD-based English curriculum module will have a positive effect on developing students’ communication skills.
H4: The UbD-based English curriculum module will have a positive effect on developing students’ collaboration skills.
To examine the hypotheses above, this study integrates the UbD framework into a college English course by designing a module. It employs a quasi-experimental design and semi-structured interviews to comprehensively evaluate the effectiveness of the UbD-based curriculum module (UbD module) in developing 4C skills among college students. Based on this, the present study provides empirical support for curriculum reform centered on core competencies. It also offers a reference for formulating relevant policies and valuable guidance for teacher training programs aimed at developing students’ 4C skills in college English learning.
2 Literature review
2.1 Theoretical perspectives
Constructivist learning theory posits that learners actively construct knowledge through interaction with their environment, tasks, and peers (Vygotsky, 1978). Existing research indicates instructions grounded in constructivist learning principles enhance students’ 4C skills (Raeisoon et al., 2024; Le and Nguyen, 2024; Kurteš et al., 2017). For example, Raeisoon et al. (2024) suggest that constructivist instruction design, centered on inquiry and project-based learning, enhances students’ creative performance. Additionally, Le and Nguyen (2024) demonstrated that, compared to the lecture-centered method, constructivist teaching emphasizes social interaction, problem-solving, and reflective practice, thereby being more effective in developing critical thinking (Vygotsky and Cole, 2018; Gagnon and Collay, 2001). Moreover, Kurteš et al. (2017) established a constructivist-based model in higher education language teaching, showing that contextualized communicative practice within technology-supported collaborative environments fosters intercultural understanding and collaborative skills.
Metacognition is defined as the “cognition of cognition,” which means the ability to consciously monitor, evaluate, and regulate one’s own cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979; Schraw and Dennison, 1994). Recent studies demonstrate that incorporating cognitive strategies into teaching design is notably helpful for developing students’ higher-order skills. In terms of creativity, Hargrove and Nietfeld (2015) found that applying metacognitive strategies to guide students’ creative processes can significantly enhance the quality of students’ creative products. Moreover, Rivas et al. (2022) combined problem-oriented learning with constructive reflection, finding that systematic metacognitive interventions play a crucial role in strengthening students’ critical thinking. In communication, Chaisriya et al. (2023) incorporated metacognitive strategies into digital narrative instruction, requiring students to plan tasks and monitor their progress, improving multiple aspects of students’ communication skills. As for collaboration, the study by Muntazhimah and Prabawanto (2020) points out that using metacognitive strategies can improve members’ understanding of assignments. This, in turn, strengthens the efficiency and quality of teamwork and promotes deeper collaborative learning.
Overall, existing research generally recognizes the positive influence of constructivist learning theory and meta-cognitive theory on improving creativity, critical thinking, communication and collaboration. However, little attention has been given to integrating the two theories within a single instructional design framework to support the holistic development of students’ 4C skills. This study addresses this gap by combining the two theories to design a UbD-based teaching module and examining its effectiveness in developing students’ 4C skills.
2.2 Integration of 4C skills with English curriculum
Since entering the 21st century, countries around the world have launched in-depth explorations of “what kind of talents to cultivate” and “how to cultivate talents.” Among them, the 21st Century Skills Framework proposed by Bellanca and Brandt (2010) has gradually gained widespread attention and recognition. The framework states that 21st century learners should possess the following four skills: Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication and Collaboration. Incorporating 4C skills into the curriculum to enhance students’ comprehensive literacy has become an influential trend in contemporary educational reforms (Fadel et al., 2015; Trilling and Fadel, 2009; Voogt and Roblin, 2012).
Many researchers have made attempts to integrate 4C skills with the English classroom in practice. For example, the introduction of innovative models in instructional design, such as project-based learning and flipped classroom, contributes to the enhancement of students’ general English proficiency and 21st century skills (Hao et al., 2024). Researchers found that PBL (problem-based learning), due to its emphasis on collaboration, inquiry, and practice, significantly promotes students’ academic achievement, communication, engagement, and soft skills such as critical thinking (Wurdinger et al., 2020). However, although some teaching models and educational technologies were widely adopted in classrooms, closer investigations revealed that these changes were often limited to the forms of teaching and learning, rather than their essence. Due to the lack of clear and systematic instructional goals, the results of teaching and learning did not change substantially (Guo et al., 2021; Shen et al., 2015).
In contrast, UbD emphasizes “beginning with the end in mind,” meaning that instructional design starts with the idea of “what students should understand,” clarifies learning outcomes, and then works backwards to the content and activities. As a result, the 4C skills are no longer a by-product of the teaching and learning process but are instead established as explicit goals from the outset of the design process (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005). Therefore, this research aims to develop an English curriculum module based on the UbD framework and examine its effectiveness in enhancing students’ 4C skills.
2.3 The application of UbD in developing 4C skills
Understanding by Design (UbD) is a student-oriented instructional design framework, emphasizing cultivating students’ deep understanding and ability to transfer learning to real-world contexts (Wiggins and McTighe, 1998). To achieve these pedagogical goals, Wiggins and McTighe (2005) proposed a corresponding model of course design underpinning the UbD framework: the Backward Design model. This model starts with the students’ learning outcomes, considers the competencies students are expected to achieve, and then backtracks the process of assessment approach and teaching activities.
Regarding the relationship between UbD and the 4C skills, existing research has indicated positive effects of UbD on creativity, critical thinking, communication and collaboration. The next section will review studies related to each of the four skills and explore the gaps that need to be addressed.
Creativity, as one of the most crucial core literacies in the 21st century (Bellanca and Brandt, 2010), can be stimulated in the UbD-based curriculum, which is closely related to the meaningful learning process structured by the UbD framework. This process enables students to generate new ideas, think more broadly and express themselves more positively (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005). Previous studies have often combined the UbD framework with other instructional tools to support the development of creativity among students. For example, Nurita et al. (2025) integrated UbD into a science course alongside case-based learning, improving students’ creative expression.
However, research into the impact of UbD on critical thinking mainly focuses on two aspects. On the one hand, from a teaching practice perspective, UbD provides a structural and practical framework that supports instructors in designing teaching activities centered around literacy goals. For example, Zhang et al. (2024) pointed out that, with UbD guidance, teachers can set specific learning objectives according to the sub-dimensions of critical thinking. They can then create open-ended tasks and corresponding evaluation instruments, offering more opportunities to develop students’ thinking skills. On the other hand, from a student learning perspective, when students engage with a UbD-based curriculum, they are encouraged to identify complex issues and reflect deeply on them, which in turn improves their critical thinking skills (Erdağı and Dündar, 2024).
There is relatively little research on how UbD affects students’ communication skills, but its positive effects can still be found in existing literature. For example, Dasas et al. (2013) applied UbD concepts to biology lessons for high school sophomores and found that students’ communication skills, creativity, and digital literacy had improved after the lessons. With regard to collaboration, Wiggins and McTighe (2005) emphasized that UbD-based curriculum design encourages the organization of activities in groups, such as group discussions, project evaluations and peer reviews, which provide interactive and collaborative real-life contexts for students. These activities motivate students to practice and develop their teamwork skills. Similarly, Erdağı and Dündar (2024) reported that students who received UbD instruction showed higher levels of collaborative awareness and team participation compared to those in the control group.
From the above discussion, UbD, as a goal-oriented framework for curriculum design, shows clear strengths in fostering core literacy. However, some research gaps remain. First, existing literature pays much attention to the impact of UbD on individual 4C skills, while research that considers the 4C skills as a whole is still lacking. Second, systematic and empirical research has not been sufficiently conducted in the context of Chinese college English instruction.
2.4 The conceptual framework of this study
Based on the theoretical insights and empirical findings reviewed earlier, this study proposes a conceptual framework to guide the design of a college English module to develop students’ 4C skills. It is grounded in the principles of UbD, adopting backward design to coordinate the learning outcomes, performance tasks, assessment measures, and instructional activities to ensure coherence throughout the instructional process. The conceptual framework is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The conceptual framework of the research.
3 Methodology
3.1 Research design
This study employs a quasi-experimental design (as shown in Figure 2), supplemented by semi-structured interviews, to provide further explanation of the quantitative results. The quasi-experimental design allowed for a comparison of learning outcomes between the experimental and control groups before and after the intervention. The experimental group received instruction designed based on the UbD framework. In contrast, the control group utilized the traditional Grammar–Translation Method (GTM), a lecture-based and teacher-centered approach that emphasizes explicit grammar explanation, vocabulary memorisation, and sentence translation. To ensure the fidelity of the UbD module implementation, several monitoring measures were adopted throughout the instructional process. First, before the formal implementation, the instructor received systematic training on the UbD framework, including its core principles and design procedures, to ensure that the UbD module could be delivered as intended. Second, the researcher attended the classes and conducted ongoing classroom observations to monitor the instructional process and to address any issues through timely communication and adjustment. Finally, before each week’s instruction, the research team provided the instructor with detailed lesson plans and teaching slides to ensure that the instructional sequence and pedagogical intentions remained fully aligned with the module design.
Figure 2. Experimental procedure of the research.
The quasi-experiment lasted for 14 weeks. In the first week, a pre-test was conducted prior to the study’s implementation to assess baseline levels of the 4C skills among both groups of students. From week 2 to week 13, the UbD-based curriculum module was implemented, with each unit delivered over 4 weeks (two class hours per week, totalling 360 min per unit). In the final week, a post-test was administered to evaluate its effectiveness. Subsequently, semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected students from the experimental group to gather qualitative data on their perceptions of the learning process.
3.2 Participants
The participants (a total of 119) were sophomores from a college in Henan Province, China. The sample was divided into an experimental group (n = 60) and a control group (n = 59), with demographic details summarized in Table 1. Participants remained anonymous throughout the research process to protect their privacy and ensure ethical compliance.
Table 1. Profile of participants in module implementation.
To collect students’ authentic views about the UbD module, 10 students from the experimental group were selected to participate in semi-structured interviews. The sample size achieved data saturation and was sufficient to represent varying levels of classroom participation and learning performance. All interviews were conducted with the students’ informed consent. To protect the interviewees’ privacy, all participants were anonymously identified using the codes “ES01–ES10,” where “E” denotes the experimental group, “S” denotes student, and the number indicates the interviewee’s sequential identification.
3.3 Instruments
In this study, a revised 4C skills questionnaire adapted from Hwang and Chang (2011) and Ma et al. (2020) was used to collect quantitative data. The 4C skills questionnaire was adapted from the version developed by Hwang and Chang (2011). The research team revised some item expressions to better suit the language habits of mainland Chinese students. Moreover, the questionnaire content was reviewed by five experts in English education and educational measurement, and minor revisions were made accordingly. After the preliminary version was completed, a pilot study involving 30 college students was conducted to examine the clarity and appropriateness of the items. Following this process, the final questionnaire was developed as a five-point Likert-scale instrument comprising 44 items, including 12, 10, 11, and 11 items for creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration, respectively (as shown in Appendix A). To ensure the reliability of the adapted questionnaire, internal consistency was assessed. Cronbach’s α was calculated for the overall questionnaire, yielding a value of 0.968, indicating good internal consistency (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). Construct validity was examined through Exploratory Factor Analysis. The KMO value was 0.943, and Bartlett’s test was significant (χ2 = 6773.65, p < 0.001). The analysis yielded a seven-factor structure, explaining 64% of the total variance.
In the interview phase, to complement the quantitative research findings, a semi-structured interview protocol was developed. It focuses on three core dimensions: students’ learning experience, their perceptions of the UbD module, and their self-evaluation of 4C skills development. To ensure the content validity and clarity of expression, the protocol was also reviewed by five experts and was subsequently revised based on their comments, resulting in a final version consisting of six core questions.
3.4 Data collection and data analysis
This study administered the questionnaire via an online platform to collect pre-test and post-test data. The quantitative data were analyzed using SPSS 27.0. First, descriptive statistics were computed to summarize the data. Subsequently, paired-sample t-tests and independent-samples t-tests were conducted to examine within-group changes and between-group differences, thereby evaluating the impact of the UbD module on students’ 4C skills development.
For qualitative data collection, face-to-face interviews were conducted, with each session lasting around 30 min. The interview recordings were transcribed and subsequently organized into written text by two researchers. Thematic analysis was employed to code and analyze the interview data using NVivo 14.0.
3.5 Experimental intervention: UbD-based curriculum module
In this study, the curriculum module was designed based on the UbD framework, following three stages: establishing learning objectives, defining assessment tasks, and designing instructional activities. The module design is further illustrated using Thematic Unit 1 as an example.
In the first stage, learning objectives are supposed to be established. When setting learning objectives, the cultivation of 4C skills should be emphasized (Wiggins and McTighe, 2005; Trilling and Fadel, 2009). The UbD framework posits organizing teaching content around “big ideas” and “essential questions,” and designing open-ended tasks that promote deep inquiry. Through the discussion with the faculty members and based on the curriculum standard of college English, the main idea of the first unit is determined as “help young people fully explore the meaning of life by presenting the life stories of famous historical figures.” The corresponding essential questions include: What is the source of meaning in life? What does a meaningful life consist of? How do our values and choices shape the trajectory of life? and so on (see Table 2 for details). These questions will lead students to analyze, reflect, reason, and construct their own arguments.
Table 2. Examples of big ideas and essential questions.
In the second stage, performance tasks and assessment approaches are designed. These tasks are closely aligned with the development of 4C skills, providing students with opportunities to collaborate, explore and express their ideas. Taking Unit 1 as an example, the main performance task (as shown in Table 3) was designed based on the big idea and essential questions. To integrate the performance task with classroom activities, it was divided into six sub-tasks embedded throughout instruction. At the same time, it is necessary to determine the appropriate evaluation approach for the task in the second stage. The UbD framework emphasizes performance assessment grounded in authentic tasks. Based on the learning objectives and task designs, task-specific assessment rubrics were developed through consultation with instructors and expert reviews. These rubrics were intended to support both student self-assessment and peer assessment.
Table 3. The design of performance tasks.
In the third stage, all performance tasks were systematically integrated into the curriculum design to ensure a coherent, goal-oriented lesson plan. This plan was offered to the instructor as a teaching guide to support effective classroom delivery.
4 Findings
In this section, before examining the teaching intervention’s influence on students’ 4C skills, the preliminary tests were conducted, including outlier detection, normality, and homogeneity of variance. When these assumptions were confirmed, independent- and paired-samples t-tests were used to investigate between-group differences and within-group changes, respectively.
4.1 Preliminary test screening
First, this study screened all pre-test and post-test data for outliers using the z-score test. The results revealed two outliers in the control group’s data with absolute z-scores exceeding 3 (critical thinking: z = −3.203; collabortation: z = −3.113). Upon further verification, both values were identified as legitimate observations and not attributable to data entry or measurement errors (Barnett and Lewis, 1994). To evaluate the effect of the outliers, a sensitivity analysis was conducted. The results suggest that the p-values and effect sizes were sensitive to the exclusion of these observations. Given that the outliers are genuine data, they may reflect authentic individual differences among students under the instructional intervention. Additionally, removing them could distort the overall representativeness of the sample. Therefore, the data were retained in the final analysis (Bhandari et al., 2024).
Subsequently, to examine whether the quantitative data conformed to the assumption of normal distribution, this study conducted Shapiro–Wilk normality tests on all data from both the experimental and control groups. The results revealed that all data complied with the normal distribution, except for collaboration in the post-test of the control group. However, considering the substantial sample size (n = 59), the t-test exhibits robustness to slight deviations from normality. Therefore, no data transformation was applied (Lumley et al., 2002). Detailed results of the Shapiro–Wilk normality tests, including all W-values and p-values, are presented in Appendix B.
Before conducting the independent sample t-test, variance homogeneity was assessed using Levene’s test. As shown in Table 4 for the pre-test, all data met the homogeneity of variance assumption, except for creativity (p < 0.05). Therefore, for creativity in the pre-test, Welch’s t-test was applied with adjusted degrees of freedom to control the impact of heteroscedasticity (Ruxton, 2006). For other dimensions, standard independent samples t-tests were used. In the post-test, no violations of the homogeneity of variance assumption were detected (as shown in Table 5), so the standard independent samples t-test was adopted to compare differences between groups after the intervention.
Table 4. Levene’s test results for homogeneity of variance of 4C skills (pre-test).
Table 5. Levene’s test results for homogeneity of variance of 4C skills (post-test).
4.2 Results for creativity
As shown in Table 6, an independent-samples t-test on pre-test scores indicated no significant difference between the experimental group (M = 3.60, SD = 0.54) and the control group (M = 3.64, SD = 0.41), t (117) = −0.43, p > 0.05, revealing that the two groups had comparable creativity levels before the intervention.
Table 6. Summary of statistical results for creativity.
In the post-test, compared to 3.69 in the control group, the mean score of the experimental group increased to 3.82. The independent-samples t-test revealed a significant difference between groups (t (117) = 2.05, p < 0.05), with a moderate effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.38), which indicates that the experimental group’s creativity significantly outperformed the control group after the intervention.
Further analysis using the paired-samples t-tests showed that no significant improvement in creativity was found in the control group (t (58) = 0.976, p > 0.05). In contrast, the experimental group showed statistically significant improvement in creativity scores after the teaching intervention (M = 3.82, t (59) = 4.01, p < 0.05), with a moderate effect size (d = 0.52). This suggested that compared with traditional instruction, the UbD module improves students’ creativity significantly.
This result was also supported by qualitative data. In the interviews, students generally reported that the UbD module increased their willingness to engage in active exploration and stimulated them to think deeply from multiple perspectives. For instance, student ES01 noted, “I had never done an activity like making a vision board before. To complete it well, I proactively searched for various templates. During the process, I found it enjoyable and kept generating new ideas.” Another interviewee (ES03) remarked, “When working on the task of designing a travel plan, I repeatedly pondered how to make the itinerary more thorough, engaging, and appealing.”
Overall, both quantitative and qualitative results indicate that the UbD-based curriculum effectively fostered students’ creativity, supporting Hypothesis 1.
4.3 Results for critical thinking
First, an independent-samples t-test was conducted. As shown in Table 7, in the pre-test, there was no significant difference between the experimental group (M = 3.63, SD = 0.46) and the control group (M = 3.69, SD = 0.45), t (117) = −0.75, p > 0.05, indicating that the two groups of students had comparable critical thinking levels. In the post-test, the mean score for the experimental group was 3.75, while the control group scored 3.78. The difference between the two groups was also not statistically significant (t (117) = −0.48, p > 0.05), indicating that the critical thinking scores of the two groups were similar after the intervention, with no significant between-group differences.
Table 7. Summary of statistical results for critical thinking.
To further compare within-group differences, paired-samples t-tests were conducted. The results showed that the pre- and post-test differences in the control group were not significant (t (58) = 1.42, p > 0.05), suggesting no notable improvement in their critical thinking levels. The mean score of the experimental group increased from 3.63 to 3.75 after the intervention, and the results reached a significant level (t = 2.04, p < 0.05). Although the effect size (d = 0.26) was small, it showed that the UbD-based curriculum module had a positive effect on improving students’ critical thinking.
The interview data aligned with the quantitative findings. Students reported that UbD-based assignments prompted them to engage in deeper analysis and independent reasoning. For instance, student ES03 remarked, “In the past, we always took notes and completed exercises in the textbook. This semester, most assignments required us to formulate arguments based on our own thoughts and provide supporting evidence. This has notably increased my analytical skills.” Students also described becoming more capable of evaluating ideas from multiple perspectives rather than accepting peers’ answers uncritically. As ES05 noted, “I no longer blindly believed my classmate’s answers.” Similarly, ES07 commented, “Other groups might have differing viewpoints… This made me gain a broader range of perspectives.”
Overall, these findings indicate that the UbD module in this study actively cultivated students’ critical thinking, thereby supporting Hypothesis 2.
4.4 Results for communication
In terms of communication skills, Table 8 shows that there is no significant difference in pre-test scores between the experimental group (M = 3.85, SD = 0.50) and the control group (M = 3.90, SD = 0.48), t (117) = −0.55, p > 0.05, revealing that the two groups were comparable before the intervention. In the post-test phase, the difference between the two groups remained non-significant, t (117) = −1.24, p > 0.05, suggesting that the UbD-based curriculum module did not result in a statistically significant improvement in communication skills.
Table 8. Summary of statistical results for communication.
Regrettably, the paired-samples t-test conducted separately on the experimental group and the control group demonstrated the same result. Specifically, after testing both groups, no significant changes were observed in their critical thinking levels, as the two-tailed p-values were both greater than 0.05. That is to say, neither group showed a significant improvement in communication skills after the intervention, which means that the UbD module is ineffective in improving students’ communication skills, failing to support Hypothesis 3.
According to the qualitative data, students expressed mixed views. Some students believed that they had gained greater confidence in communicating. For example, one student reported, “I found that I wanted to do better than the previous time, and found myself increasingly driven to surpass my own achievements (ES09).” However, several students felt that their communication skills “remained the same as before, without much change” (ES05–07). These findings suggest that although the quantitative data did not indicate significant progress in communication, the UbD module did enhance some students’ communication skills, reflecting individual differences among learners.
4.5 Results for collaboration
According to Table 9, in the pre-test phase, there was no significant difference between the experimental group (M = 3.87, SD = 0.57) and the control group (M = 3.89, SD = 0.58), t (117) = −0.19, p > 0.05, indicating that the two groups were comparable in terms of collaboration skills prior to the intervention. In the post-test, the experimental group’s mean score increased to 4.02, while the control group scored 3.88. Although the difference between the two groups did not reach statistical significance (t (117) = 1.80, p = 0.074), it showed a trend approaching significance, with a Cohen’s d = 0.33, which is close to a medium effect size. This reveals that the experimental group may have experienced a positive impact from the UbD module on collaboration skills.
Table 9. Summary of statistical results for collaboration.
Further analysis using a paired-samples t-test revealed no significant difference between pre- and post-test scores in the control group (t = −0.288, p > 0.05). In contrast, the experimental group’s scores significantly improved from 3.87 to 4.02 after the intervention (t = 2.77, p < 0.05), with a Cohen’s d of 0.36, approaching a moderate effect. This suggests that the UbD-based curriculum module has a certain degree of effectiveness in enhancing students’ collaboration.
Interview findings indicate that students perceived the performance tasks in the UbD module can foster effective collaboration. They remarked that through teamwork, they learned skills such as negotiation, task allocation, and responsibility-taking. As ES06 noted: “Things did not go smoothly at first, but as long as everyone was willing to discuss, we could allocate responsibilities fairly and complete the task swiftly.” ES08 also observed: “Sometimes, we need to compromise… yet I feel I must perform well on the assigned task.” Furthermore, students noted that engaging in frequent and intensive negotiation exercises significantly improved their collaboration and listening skills. For instance, ES05 remarked: “Each unit included many group tasks, which pushed us to communicate and adjust continuously. Throughout the process, I could clearly see improvements in my collaborative skills.”
In summary, collaboration skills between the two groups were not clearly reflected in the quantitative data, whereas qualitative findings provide some evidence that UBD-based instruction fostered students’ collaboration, supporting Hypothesis 4.
5 Discussion
This study is guided by the constructivist learning theory and metacognitive theory, employing a quasi-experimental method with semi-structured interviews to examine the effectiveness of UbD-based curriculum design in enhancing 4C skills among college students. Through a combined analysis of quantitative and qualitative data, this study demonstrated that the UbD module had differential impacts across the four dimensions of the 4C skills. Intragroup comparisons (paired-samples t-tests) revealed significant improvements in students’ creativity (p < 0.05, d = 0.52), collaboration (p < 0.05, d = 0.36), and critical thinking (p < 0.05, d = 0.26). Creativity showed the greatest enhancement, while gains in critical thinking were relatively limited. Communication, however, did not exhibit a statistically significant improvement. Further between-group analyses using independent-samples t-tests indicated that only creativity showed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups, whereas no meaningful intervention effects were found for the other abilities. To account for the results above, the following paragraph provides a detailed discussion.
5.1 The impact of the UbD-based curriculum module on students’ creativity (H1)
The findings indicate that the UbD module was particularly effective in enhancing students’ creativity. Compared with other dimensions, creativity was the only one that presented a consistent intervention advantage in both between-group and within-group analyses. This pattern highlights the distinctive contribution of the teaching intervention to stimulating students’ creativity. Research from Thailand, Indonesia, and other Asia-Pacific regions also demonstrates that integrating the UbD framework into courses in various disciplines and educational stages is beneficial for promoting students’ creativity (Srikongchan et al., 2021; Nurita et al., 2025). The present study yielded similar findings in the context of college English teaching in China, further demonstrating the general potential of the UbD framework to enhance students’ creativity.
Beyond aligning with prior studies, the underlying reasons for this improvement can be further explained from theoretical perspectives. This study intentionally designed open-ended performance tasks for instruction (e.g., creating vision boards, drawing a life diagram, etc.), which encouraged divergent thinking and self-expression. These tasks are consistent with constructivist principles that learners actively construct meaning through engaging and contextualized experiences, thereby supporting the development of creativity (Jarutkamolpong and Kwangmuang, 2025; Wiggins and McTighe, 2008).
In terms of a metacognitive perspective, the tasks required students to monitor, evaluate, and adjust their learning across multiple cycles of conception, revision, and production, directly reflecting the learning strategies emphasized in metacognitive theory. For example, learners reflected on past experiences when drawing a life-curve diagram and examined whether their travel plans aligned with the needs of the target audience. Accordingly, the improvement in creativity observed in the experimental group reflects not only the positive influence of open-ended task design but also the learning mechanisms highlighted in both constructivist and metacognitive theories.
5.2 The impact of the UbD-based curriculum module on students’ critical thinking (H2)
The result regarding critical thinking suggests that the UbD module had a positive impact on developing students’ critical thinking skills, which is consistent with existing research. For example, Ozyurt et al. (2021) noted that by constructing authentic learning environments and providing cognitive scaffolding, the UbD framework can achieve meaningful and enduring learning, effectively facilitating the development of critical thinking.
This result is closely linked to the UbD-based course design. In the module, instructional activities emphasize logical reasoning, judgment, and reflection, such as case analyses and argumentative writing on social hot topics. Through these activities, students analyzed problems, synthesized information and assessed different viewpoints, which contributed to the improvement of their critical thinking skills (Mills et al., 2019). From a constructivist perspective, the tasks provided students with adequate opportunities to gather information, compare views, and make reasonable judgments, aligning with the principles of contextualized knowledge construction. Concerning the metacognitive theory, the module embedded performance tasks that required students to regulate their thinking by planning, monitoring, and evaluating their cognitive processes, thereby further strengthening their analytical and evaluative abilities.
However, it is worth noting that, although both critical thinking and creativity belong to individual reasoning, the effect size for critical thinking (d = 0.26) was smaller than that for creativity (d = 0.52). Moreover, the between-group difference in critical thinking was not statistically significant, unlike in creativity. These differences between the two skills are related to their cognitive characteristics and developmental pathways. The open-ended performance tasks in the UbD module enable the stimulation of students’ intrinsic motivation and divergent thinking, thereby directly facilitating their creative performance (Snyder et al., 2025). By contrast, critical thinking involves more complex cognitive processes such as analysis, evaluation, reasoning, and so on, so its development relies on long-term and systematic training (Fu, 2025; Özelçi and Çalışkan, 2019).
Although the performance tasks in the UbD module are intentionally designed to guide students toward multiple perspectives and dialectical reasoning, research indicates that merely placing students in complex problem situations has limited effect on the development of their critical thinking (Abrami et al., 2015; Yeh et al., 2022). Fostering this ability needs more explicit and systematic pedagogical interventions, such as embedding a specific thinking framework as a form of scaffolding (e.g., the RAVEN principles to assess information) or providing practical reflection tools (Park et al., 2023). Such tools can help students externalize and structure implicit thought processes and facilitate their transformative application through repeated practice. Therefore, in a short teaching intervention, the improvement in critical thinking is smaller than that in creativity, which is easier to stimulate and enhance through open-ended tasks and contextual scenarios. Collectively, the variations in effect sizes across different skills suggest that, in future studies, it is necessary to further optimize the task scaffolding and instructional support to foster the sustained development of critical thinking.
5.3 The impact of the UbD-based curriculum module on students’ communication skills (H3)
The research data showed that the UbD-based curriculum module had no significant effect on improving students’ communication. This result contradicts the findings of Bliss and Marsh (2021), who reported significant improvements in students’ communication.
The reasons for this result lie in two aspects. First, some students lack essential oral expression skills and have personality traits such as shyness and low self-confidence, which make them reluctant to speak in class. This is consistent with prior research on East Asian students’ classroom engagement, which demonstrates that students’ fear of making mistakes often leads them to remain silent in public environments (Langen and Stamov Roßnagel, 2023). For instance, in the interviews, one student remarked, “Nobody is willing to speak up, as it is too awkward to speak incorrectly (ES10).”
Second, oversized class and classroom time constraints limited students’ opportunities to engage in oral expression and impromptu exercises, which are highly beneficial for training basic communication skills (Boesen et al., 2009; Roshan et al., 2022). As some interviewees noted, “The activities were conducted via a real-time interactive platform, and we wrote and uploaded answers through the mini programmer. In this way, everyone can participate in the teaching activity, but if we were to answer questions orally one by one, the time would not be enough.”
Overall, although the UbD module offers opportunities to apply English in a real-world context, students’ training in oral expression and immediate communication remains insufficient. This indicates that, in the oversized class, depending only on the interactions in the classroom is insufficient to develop students’ communication skills systematically (Roshan et al., 2022). Therefore, future instructional design should focus on balancing communication with other core competencies and increasing oral expression and interactive tasks both inside and outside the classroom, providing students with more opportunities for systematic language practice.
5.4 The impact of the UbD-based curriculum module on students’ collaboration skills (H4)
Regarding collaboration, the results suggest that the UbD module has a potentially positive effect on enhancing students’ collaborative skills. These findings align with studies by Lai (2024) and Dari et al. (2024), which demonstrate that students participating in UbD-based instruction are more active in terms of collaborative awareness and teamwork engagement.
The effectiveness of the intervention in the experimental group can be explained from two perspectives: course design and task mechanisms. First, according to constructivist learning principles, the UbD module embedded tasks and structured peer evaluation. These offered clear cooperative objectives and ongoing feedback. Furthermore, completing tasks together enables students to systematically develop their collaboration skills in authentic contexts (Erdağı and Dündar, 2024; Wiggins and McTighe, 2005).
However, it should be noted that, in the within-group comparisons, the effect size for collaboration (d = 0.36) was larger than that for critical thinking (d = 0.26), but smaller than that for creativity (d = 0.53). Moreover, the between-group difference in collaboration did not reach statistical significance after the intervention. Such findings suggest that fostering students’ collaboration requires not only providing opportunities for them to work together, but also optimizing the process and quality of collaboration (Johnsen et al., 2024). The interview data revealed problems related to the low quality of interactions during the teamwork process. For example, several students (ES02, ES03, ES07) mentioned the “free-rider” phenomenon, that is, some team members did not actively participate in the tasks, and task completion mainly relied on a small number of students. The uneven distribution of tasks among team members, together with insufficient participation, weakened the actual effectiveness of the collaborative tasks.
Additionally, some students noted that they preferred independent learning activities over collaborative tasks, as collaboration requires more effort in communication. These factors, to some extent, limited students’ active participation in the collaborative process, thereby undermining the development of their collaboration skills. More importantly, literature suggests that effective development of skills, such as collaboration, generally requires prolonged, structured, and iterative practice (Fernández-Espínola et al., 2020; Zamiri and Esmaeili, 2024). Thus, the development of collaborative skills requires sustained instructional intervention and additional practice opportunities (Teuwen et al., 2024).
6 Conclusion
In summary, this study investigated the effectiveness of a UbD-based curriculum design in promoting 4C skills among college students in an English course. The findings showed that UbD-based instruction can effectively improve students’ creativity and has a positive effect on enhancing students’ critical thinking and collaboration. This study offers theoretical, empirical, and practical insights. It integrates constructivist and metacognitive theories in a language learning context, addresses the deficiency in the application of the UbD framework in Chinese college English education, and offers an operational teaching paradigm for college English reform and 4C skills development.
However, this research also has several limitations. First, all participants in this study were drawn from a single college, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Second, the duration of the teaching intervention is relatively limited. Within the three-month semester framework, the implementation cycle of the UbD module may not be sufficient to fully develop certain 4C skills, and some potential learning outcomes may not have been adequately realized. Finally, despite the UbD module playing a positive role in developing most of the 4C skills, the effect sizes indicate that the module in this study is unlikely to support the development of all skills equally within the limited timeframe of the instructional intervention.
Based on the limitations above, and combining the main findings and discussion of the study, the following future directions are proposed. First of all, regarding the research subject, future studies may expand the sample to institutions in different regions and of varying academic levels to enhance external validity. Moreover, future studies could extend the duration of the teaching intervention, and conduct longitudinal tracking of students’ 4C skill development in order to better evaluate the sustainability of instructional effectiveness. In the instructional design, future research should further optimize the tasks in the UbD module and investigate differential teaching strategies targeting various skills to more effectively facilitate the overall development of students’ 4C skills. Furthermore, given the variations in cognitive characteristics and developmental pathways across different 4C skills, future research should conduct an in-depth analysis of the operational mechanisms of the UbD module on each skill.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Ethics statement
The requirement of ethical approval was waived by Ethics Committee of Henan Institute of Science and Technology, Xinxiang, Henan, China. The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.
Author contributions
YL: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. FK: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Resources, Writing – review & editing. NN: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2026.1678369/full#supplementary-material
References
Abrami, P. C., Bernard, R. M., Borokhovski, E., Waddington, D. I., Wade, C. A., and Persson, T. (2015). Strategies for teaching students to think critically: a meta-analysis. Rev. Educ. Res. 85, 275–314. doi: 10.3102/0034654314551063
Alcivar Loor, K. V., Zambrano Mero, J. A., Muñoz Rodríguez, A. M., and Loor Caicedo, C. K. (2024). Cooperative, collaborative learning enhances students’ ability to improve their oral communication in an English classroom. Ciencia Lat. Rev. Científica Multidiscip. 8, 1939–1953. doi: 10.37811/cl_rcm.v8i6.14951
Aswad, M., Januarti Putri, A. M., and Sudewi, P. W. (2024). Enhancing student learning outcomes through the communicative language teaching approach. Al-Ishlah J. Pendidik. 16, 123–141. doi: 10.35445/alishlah.v16i4.5204
Barnett, V., and Lewis, T. (1994). Outliers in statistical data. 3rd Edn. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Bellanca, J. A., and Brandt, R. S. (Eds.) (2010). 21st century skills: Rethinking how students learn. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
Bhandari, D. R., Shah, K., and Bhandari, A. (2024). The power of outliers in research: what actually works, and does it matter? Pravaha 30, 84–91. doi: 10.3126/pravaha.v30i1.76894
Bliss, K., and Marsh, S. (2021). A backward design approach to health communication: developing health literacy skills during COVID-19. Pedagogy Health Promot. 7, 198–203. doi: 10.1177/23733799211011493
Boesen, K. P., Herrier, R. N., Apgar, D. A., and Jackowski, R. M. (2009). Improvisational exercises to improve pharmacy students' professional communication skills. Am. J. Pharm. Educ. 73:35. doi: 10.1016/S0002-9459(24)00606-5
Chaisriya, K., Kaeophanuek, S., and Gilbert, L. (2023). The effects of integrating digital storytelling with metacognition strategies (DSTMC) learning model to enhance communication abilities. Contemp. Educ. Technol. 15:ep416. doi: 10.30935/cedtech/12986
Dari, W., Hidayat, S., and Wulandari, E. (2024). The understanding by design strategy in 21st-century education. Biosfer J. Tadris Biol. 14, 169–179. doi: 10.24042/biosfer.v14i2.15818
Dasas, L., Prudente, M., and Aguja, S. (2013). “Efficacy of integrating 21st-century skills in an understanding by design (UbD21) pedagogical plan on life energy and processes” in EdMedia + innovate learning (Waynesville, USA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE)), 167–175.
Deng, L., Wu, Y., Chen, L., and Peng, Z. (2024). Pursuing competencies’ or ‘pursuing scores’? High school teachers' perceptions and practices of competency-based education reform in China. Teach. Teach. Educ. 141:104510. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2024.104510
Deng, M. (2023). An analysis of the grammar translation method in the 20th century and the inevitability of its application in China. Edu. Rev. USA 7, 305–308. doi: 10.26855/er.2023.03.002
Erdağı, T., and Dündar, H. (2024). Investigation of the effects of understanding by design model on problem-solving, collaboration, and academic achievement in social studies course. Erzincan Üniv. Egit. Fak. Derg. 26, 330–338. doi: 10.17556/erziefd.1451042
Fadel, C., Bialik, M., and Trilling, B. (2015). Four-dimensional education: the competencies learners need to succeed. Boston, MA: Center for Curriculum Redesign.
Fatmawati, A., Zubaidah, S., and Mahanal, S. (2019). Critical thinking, creative thinking, and learning achievement: How they are related. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1417:012070. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1417/1/012070
Fernández-Espínola, C., Abad Robles, M. T., Collado-Mateo, D., Almagro, B. J., Castillo Viera, E., and Giménez Fuentes-Guerra, F. J. (2020). Effects of cooperative-learning interventions on physical education students’ intrinsic motivation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17:4451. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17124451,
Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: a new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. Am. Psychol. 34, 906–911. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906
Fu, Z. Q. (2025). A literature review of empirical research on critical thinking. Edu. Res. Pract. 1, 20–35. doi: 10.63887/jerp.2025.1.5.20
Gagnon, G. W., and Collay, M. (2001). Designing for learning: six elements in constructivist classrooms. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Guo, Q., Zhou, X. E., and Gao, X. A. (2021). Research on learning and teaching of languages other than English in system. System 100:102541. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2021.102541
Hao, L., Tian, K., Salleh, U. K. M., Leng, C. H., Ge, S., and Cheng, X. (2024). The effect of project-based learning and project-based flipped classroom on critical thinking and creativity in a business English course at higher vocational colleges. Malays. J. Learn. Instr. 21, 159–190. doi: 10.32890/mjli2024.21.1.6
Hargrove, R. A., and Nietfeld, J. L. (2015). The impact of metacognitive instruction on creative problem solving. J. Exp. Educ. 83, 291–318. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2013.876604
Harmon, B. B., Das, D., Neuman, A. W., Nkomo, S., Powell, N. L., and Scharf, A. (2024). Cultivating a meaningful application of IMFs through backward laboratory course design. J. Chem. Educ. 101, 2331–2342. doi: 10.1021/acs.jchemed.3c00810,
Hwang, G. J., and Chang, H. F. (2011). A formative assessment-based mobile learning approach to improving the learning attitudes and achievements of students. Comput. Educ. 56, 1023–1031. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2010.12.002
Jarutkamolpong, S., and Kwangmuang, P. (2025). Enhancing undergraduate creative thinking through a constructivist mobile learning application: design, development, and evaluation. Think. Skills Creat. 57:101866. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101866
Johnsen, M. M. W., Sjølie, E., and Johansen, V. (2024). Learning to collaborate in a project-based graduate course: a multilevel study of student outcomes. Res. High. Educ. 65, 439–462. doi: 10.1007/s11162-023-09754-7
Jumayeva, M. B. K. (2025). Developing collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativity within the framework of the 4C model. Int. Multi. J. Res. Dev. 12, 594–597.
Kurteš, S., Larina, V. T., and Ozyumenko, I. V. (2017). “A constructivist approach to intercultural communication teaching and learning” in 9th international conference on education and new learning technologies (EDULEARN17 proceedings), 591–597.
Lai, Y. H. (2024). Learning efficacy of understanding by design–internet of things (UbD-IoT) education integrated with design thinking and computational thinking. Libr. Hi Tech 42, 730–747. doi: 10.1108/LHT-01-2023-0002
Langen, I., and Stamov Roßnagel, C. (2023). East is east: Socratic classroom communication is linked to higher stress in students from Confucian heritage cultures. Heliyon 9:e15748. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15748,
Law, W. W. (2014). Understanding China’s curriculum reform for the 21st century. J. Curric. Stud. 46, 332–360. doi: 10.1080/00220272.2014.883431
Le, H. V., and Nguyen, L. Q. (2024). Promoting L2 learners’ critical thinking skills: the role of social constructivism in reading class. Front. Educ. 9:1241973. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2024.1241973
Lumley, T., Diehr, P., Emerson, S., and Chen, L. (2002). The importance of the normality assumption in large public health data sets. Annu. Rev. Public Health 23, 151–169. doi: 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.23.100901.140546,
Luo, J., and Chan, C. K. (2023). Twenty years of assessment policies in China: a focus on assessing students’ holistic development. Int. J. Chinese Edu. 12, 1–16.
Ma, L., Wei, R., Liu, J., Ma, M., Liu, Y., and Xu, G. (2020). Critical thinking: Part II of the 5Cs framework for twenty-first century key competences. J. East China Norm. Univ.(Educational Sciences), 38, 45–56. doi: 10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5560.2020.02.005
Mills, J., Wiley, C., and Williams, J. (2019). “This is what learning looks like!”: backward design and the framework in first year writing. Portal: Libr. Acad. 19, 155–175. doi: 10.1353/pla.2019.0008
Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (2018). National standards for teaching quality in undergraduate majors of regular higher education institutions. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education.
Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China (2019). Opinions on deepening undergraduate education and teaching reform and comprehensively improving the quality of talent cultivation. Beijing, China: Ministry of Education.
Muntazhimah, T., and Prabawanto, S. (2020). How to apply metacognitive strategies in collaborative learning settings. PervasiveHealth: Perv. Comp. Tech. Heal. 1, 216–222.
National Advisory Committee on College Foreign Language Teaching, Ministry of Education (2020). Guidelines for college English teaching (2020 edition). Beijing, China: Ministry of Education.
Nurita, T., Yuliati, L., Handayanto, S. K., Hidayat, A., and Saleah, P. (2025). Case-based learning for creative thinking skills on the ideal gas law: application of the understanding by design framework. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia 14, 70–82. doi: 10.15294/jpii.v14i1.16938
Özelçi, S. Y., and Çalışkan, G. (2019). What is critical thinking? A longitudinal study with teacher candidates. Int. J. Eval. Res. Edu. 8, 495–509.
Ozyurt, M., Kan, H., and Kiyikci, A. (2021). The effectiveness of understanding by design model in science teaching: a quasi-experimental study. Eurasian J. Educ. Res. 94, 1–20. doi: 10.14689/ejer.2021.94.1
Park, J. H., Li, Y., and Niu, W. (2023). Revisiting creativity and critical thinking through content analysis. J. Creat. 33:100056. doi: 10.1016/j.yjoc.2023.100056
Raeisoon, M., Raeisi, M., and Mohammadi, Y. (2024). Effect of using the constructivist teaching method on creative thinking and entrepreneurship. Heal. Tech. Assess. Act. 8, 1–10. doi: 10.18502/htaa.v8i1.15029
Ramasamy, R., Mohamad, M., Sanmugam, M., and Mei, H. C. (2023). Utilizing critical and creativity thinking to enhance ESL grammar and vocabulary in narrative essay writing among Malaysian form-four learners. English Teacher 52, 59–71. doi: 10.52696/HPDX4736
Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., and Ossa, C. (2022). Metacognitive strategies and development of critical thinking in higher education. Front. Psychol. 13:913219. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.913219,
Roshan, A., Gurbaz, M., and Rahmani, S. (2022). The effects of large classes on English language teaching. Integ. J. Res. Arts and Hum. 2:38. doi: 10.55544/ijrah.2.2.20
Ruxton, G. D. (2006). The unequal variance t-test is an underused alternative to student’s t-test and the Mann–Whitney U test. Behav. Ecol. 17, 688–690. doi: 10.1093/beheco/ark016
Schraw, G., and Dennison, R. S. (1994). Assessing metacognitive awareness. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 19, 460–475. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1994.1033
Shen, H., Yuan, Y., and Ewing, R. (2015). English learning websites and digital resources from the perspective of Chinese university EFL practitioners. ReCALL 27, 156–176. doi: 10.1017/S0958344014000263
Snyder, H. T., Grohman, M. G., and Awa, K. N. (2025). Creative coursework and college students’ perceptions: examining creative self-efficacy, creative personal identity, and intrinsic task motivation. Think. Skills Creat. 58:101925. doi: 10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101925
Srikongchan, W., Kaewkuekool, S., and Mejaleurn, S. (2021). Backward instructional design-based learning activities for developing students’ creative thinking with lateral thinking technique. Int. J. Instr. 14, 233–252. doi: 10.29333/iji.2021.14214a
Teuwen, C. J., Kusurkar, R. A., Schreurs, H., Daelmans, H. E. M., and Peerdeman, S. M. (2024). Interprofessional collaboration skills and motivation one year after an interprofessional educational intervention for undergraduate medical and nursing students. BMC Med. Educ. 24:269. doi: 10.1186/s12909-024-05262-z,
Thornhill-Miller, B., Camarda, A., Mercier, M., Burkhardt, J. M., Morisseau, T., Bourgeois-Bougrine, S., et al. (2023). Creativity, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration: assessment, certification, and promotion of 21st century skills for the future of work and education. J. Intelligence 11:54. doi: 10.3390/jintelligence11030054,
Trilling, B., and Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: learning for life in our times. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Voogt, J., and Roblin, N. P. (2012). A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: implications for national curriculum policies. J. Curriculum Stud. 44, 299–321. doi: 10.1080/00220272.2012.668938
Vygotsky, L., and Cole, M. (2018). “Lev Vygotsky: learning and social constructivism” in Learning theories for early years practice (London, England: SAGE Publications Inc.), 68–73.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). “Interaction between learning and development” in Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. eds. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, and E. Souberman (Harvard University Press), 79–91.
Wiggins, G., and McTighe, J. (1998). “What is backward design?” in Understanding by design, vol. 1 (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development), 7–19.
Wiggins, G., and McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design. 2nd Edn. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Wurdinger, S., Newell, R., and Kim, E. S. (2020). Measuring life skills, hope, and academic growth at project-based learning schools. Improving Sch. 23, 264–276. doi: 10.1177/1365480220901968
Yeh, H.-C., Yang, S.-H., Fu, J. S., and Shih, Y.-C. (2022). Developing college students’ critical thinking through reflective writing. High. Educ. Res. Dev. 42, 244–259. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2022.2043247
Zamiri, M., and Esmaeili, A. (2024). Strategies, methods, and supports for developing skills within learning communities: a systematic review of the literature. Admin. Sci. 14:231. doi: 10.3390/admsci14090231
Zhang, X., Su, X., Huang, S., Tian, H., Chen, J., Carvalho, R., et al. (2024). “Applying the understanding by design (UbD) model to support critical thinking and multidisciplinary inquiry in the Chinese high school biology curriculum” in Proceedings of the 18th international conference of the learning sciences (ICLS 2024) (Buffalo, NY, USA: International Society of the Learning Sciences), 2463–2464.
Keywords: 4C skills, college English curriculum, core literacy, quasi-experiment, Understanding by Design
Citation: Liu Y, Khalid F and Nasri NM (2026) Learning that lasts: developing 4C skills in college English through Understanding by Design framework. Front. Educ. 11:1678369. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2026.1678369
Edited by:
Rolando Salazar Hernandez, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, MexicoReviewed by:
Pitambar Paudel, Tribhuvan University, NepalMuhamad Arif Mahdiannur, Surabaya State University, Indonesia
Copyright © 2026 Liu, Khalid and Nasri. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Yuanbo Liu, bGl1eXVhbmJvMjAxOUAxNjMuY29t