The application of Communicative Language Teaching in English education at Chinese universities: the serial mediation role of classroom atmosphere and second language acquisition self-efficacy

With the in-depth development of English language teaching reform, the effectiveness of Communicative Language Teaching Method (CLT) and its mechanism of action in Chinese colleges and universities need to be studied in depth. Based on social cognitive theory and social constructivism, this study constructed a theoretical model of “CLT classroom participation - classroom atmosphere - self-efficacy in second language acquisition - commitment to second language learning,” and through a systematic survey of 656 college students from 7 colleges and universities across the country, the study reveals the innovative path of CLT in the Chinese educational context. The study found that: (1) CLT classroom participation positively affects students’ engagement in second language learning; (2) classroom atmosphere mediates the influence of CLT classroom participation on students’ engagement in second language learning; (3) self-efficacy for second language acquisition mediates the influence of CLT classroom participation on students’ engagement in second language learning; and (4) classroom atmosphere and self-efficacy form a chained mediation path. This finding breaks through overcomes the limitations of traditional CLT research that examines instructional variables in isolation. It is the first time that social cognitive theory and social constructivism have been systematically integrated, and a model of CLT mechanism applicable to Chinese educational culture has been proposed. The dual-path intervention strategy of “creating a supportive atmosphere and enhancing students’ sense of efficacy” is proposed for teacher training based on the empirical results, and specific suggestions are provided for the localization of CLT in Chinese classrooms, which is an important guiding value for improving the quality of English language teaching in China and promoting the innovation of teaching methods.

1 Introduction

Since the reform and opening up of China, English education in Chinese colleges and universities has been seeking a balance between the dual demands of “instrumentality” and “humanity” (Cheng, 2016). As the mainstream paradigm of language teaching in the era of globalization, the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) method was introduced to China in the 1990s, and its concept of “focusing on the cultivation of communicative competence” was generally regarded as a good solution to the dilemma of “mute English” (Hu, 2002; He and Li, 2009). However, nearly three decades of practice have shown that the implementation of CLT in Chinese colleges and universities is not a simple transplantation of pedagogy, but a systematic project that involves a deep-seated transformation of education and culture (Yu, 2001). When the Western interactive classroom, which emphasizes individual expression, meets the Chinese didactic tradition, which focuses on knowledge transfer, and when the Task-Based Learning Teaching (TBLT) meets the rigid constraints of the Grade 4 and 6 exams, which are the most common English language proficiency tests for Chinese college students, the practical effects of CLT show significant inter-collegiate differences and disciplinary differentiation (Han, 2021; Zhang and Wang, 2010). Meanwhile, some literature points out that in China, college English teaching has long been teacher-centered, emphasizing grammar and translation while neglecting students’ active learning and communication skills. This has resulted in students lacking communicative competence and learning motivation when applying English in practice (Lu et al., 2014; Wright and Zheng, 2016). This enduring gap between CLT’s theoretical promise and its practical application underscores a key limitation in the existing literature. Much of the research has focused on establishing a direct link between CLT use and final language proficiency, often overlooking the intermediate psychological and social processes that may account for such outcomes. To advance beyond this impasse and elucidate how CLT can be successfully adapted, it is necessary to examine the immediate mechanisms it activates within the classroom. Grounded in social cognitive theory, this study contends that student engagement in second language learning constitutes the pivotal conduit through which pedagogical approaches effect change. This engagement encompasses the behavioral, cognitive, and affective resources students invest in learning activities. Within the Chinese university context, where shifting students from a passive to an active learning role is a recognized pedagogical hurdle, a method’s ability to generate and sustain meaningful engagement is a crucial intermediate indicator of its relevance and potential efficacy. Therefore, investigating whether CLT fosters such engagement, and specifically the sequential pathways via classroom atmosphere and self-efficacy that may underlie this relationship, provides a more refined and educationally actionable perspective than an exclusive focus on long-term language achievement. Consequently, this study addresses two sequential questions. First, does active participation in a CLT classroom enhance Chinese university students’ engagement in second language learning? Second, is this influence mediated sequentially through an improved classroom atmosphere and subsequently through stronger self-efficacy in second language acquisition?

Existing literature mostly focuses on the macro-policy appropriateness of CLT or micro-classroom technology, but neglects a key meso-level: the dynamic inter-construction of the quality of classroom interactions and learners’ self-efficacy (Sreehari, 2012; Sato and Kleinsasser, 1999; Jacobs and Farrell, 2003). From a more macro perspective, the fate of CLT in Chinese universities reflects the general predicament of educational theory transplantation in the era of globalization (He, 2004; Liu, 2005). The dual-mediation model proposed in this study provides a new analytical framework for CLT research and responds to the international debate on the cultural adaptability of pedagogical methods in the following three aspects: first, the effectiveness of a teaching method depends on whether it can be embedded into the “logic of practice” of local education rather than on the completeness of its theoretical foundation; second, technological empowerment is not merely a replacement of tools but a process of reconstituting how teaching methods are connected with socio-cultural factors. Thirdly, the specificity of the Chinese case lies in the fact that there is a dual tension between “catching up with the West” and “maintaining the characteristics” of the education system, which makes the localization of CLT inevitably a tense process of exploration.

Based on this, this study systematically integrates social cognitive theory and interaction hypothesis for the first time, and proposes the theoretical framework of “dual-path activation.” This study reveals the existence of a conductive relationship between the two: high-quality classroom interactions provide learners with successful communicative experiences, which are transformed into stable self-efficacy beliefs after cognitive processing, and then drive continuous learning engagement. This finding breaks through the limitations of the juxtaposition of variables in traditional mediation analyses and provides a finer theoretical lens for understanding the dynamic mechanism of action of CLT, and provides Chinese evidence for the realization of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG4: quality education).

2 Literature review and research hypothesis

2.1 CLT

Since its emergence in the 1970s, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) has become the core paradigm of language education worldwide (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Its core concept is to develop learners’ communicative competence through interactive tasks in authentic contexts (Canale and Swain, 1980). CLT is oriented to authentic communicative functions and advocates task-based learning (TBLT) and interactive classrooms. Its core principles include: (1) Student-centered teaching model: the teacher’s role changes from knowledge transmitter to learning guide (Nunan, 1987). (2) Task-driven: simulating authentic language environments through activities such as role-playing, project design, etc. (Ellis, 1996). Savignon (1983) emphasizes that CLT classrooms should help students transform their language knowledge into communicative competence through interactive tasks in authentic contexts. Littlewood (1981) further points out that the success of CLT depends on teachers’ flexible design of communicative activities. In the current Chinese higher education, CLT is regarded as a key pathway to improve students’ practical application of English (Liu and Deris, 2023)

2.2 CLT classroom participation and second language learning engagement

Classroom engagement is the expression of students’ active participation in learning activities in the classroom, covering multiple dimensions such as cognitive, affective and behavioral. It should not be simply understood as the frequency of students’ speaking or participating in discussions in the classroom, but includes a series of complex systems including students’ behavioral participation, task participation, language participation, and social interaction participation in the classroom. Classroom participation is recognized in modern education as one of the key factors in students’ learning success. Research has shown that classroom engagement has a significant impact on students’ knowledge acquisition, classroom atmosphere, and their overall academic performance (Jabbarifar, 2011). Brownson states that students’ classroom engagement significantly improves their understanding and retention of the concepts they are learning, and as a result, students who are actively engaged typically perform better academically. The connotation of classroom engagement can be analyzed from several perspectives (Brownson, 2013). First, cognitive engagement refers to students’ learning behaviors and thinking activities in the classroom. According to Mahdikhani et al. the cognitive dimension of classroom engagement consists of listening to lectures as well as internalizing and deepening knowledge through questioning and discussion (Mahdikhani et al., 2016). The affective and social dimensions of participation involve students’ interactions with their peers and the teacher, again including performance in group discussions and collaborative learning. Weaver and Qi state that interactive and collaborative learning in the classroom contributes to the development of students’ social competence and critical thinking. Teachers’ teaching methods and classroom management also have a significant impact on classroom participation (Weaver and Qi, 2005). Research has shown that student-centered teaching methods are effective in enhancing student engagement in the classroom, whereas traditional teacher-centered teaching methods may limit student participation (Rocca, 2008). In addition, the classroom environment has a significant impact on student engagement; Ryder (2017) found that students were more likely to participate in a supportive classroom with a relaxed atmosphere, whereas an overly serious classroom may result in a decreased willingness to participate. In summary, classroom participation, as a core part of students’ learning process, is much more than a superficial behavioral performance, but a complex system that integrates cognitive input, emotional interaction and social collaboration, reflecting students’ learning status while shaping their knowledge construction, ability development and psychological experience. From individual cognition to group interaction, from pedagogical guidance to environment creation, the multiple dimensions of classroom participation together constitute a dynamic learning ecosystem.

In the field of second language teaching and learning, the introduction and deepening of the concept of communicative competence has led to a fundamental shift in how scholars and educators understand student participation in the language classroom. Traditionally, such participation was often confined to one-way “teacher-question–student-answer” exchanges or mechanical language drills. However, Hymes’ theory of communicative competence and Canale and Swain’s subsequent development suggest that authentic language competence is not bound to grammatical knowledge alone, but also encompasses multidimensional skills such as sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence (Hymes, 1972). This theoretical turn paved the way for the emergence of CLT and, consequently, shaped its distinctive approach to classroom participation. Compared with the traditional model, there are “three shifts” in classroom participation under the CLT framework: first, from “correct form” to “transmission of meaning.” Second, from “teacher-led” to “teacher-student co-construction.” Third, from “isolated exercises” to “contextualized tasks,” CLT emphasizes that the core goal of language learning is to cultivate learners’ communicative competence, and classroom participation has been given a brand new connotation under this teaching framework (Canale and Swain, 1981). Unlike the traditional teacher-centered teaching model that focuses on instilling grammatical rules, CLT classroom participation pays more attention to the learners’ ability to actively use language in real or near-real communicative situations, and its essence is to promote language acquisition through interaction, cooperation and negotiation of meaning. In the CLT classroom, the forms of participation are no longer limited to passive responses to teacher’s questions, but cover a wide range of communicative activities such as role-playing, group discussion, information gap tasks, project collaboration and so on (Celce-Murcia, 2008).

In the CLT classroom, this new communicative-centered mode of engagement is reshaping the intrinsic mechanisms of second language learning. When we take a closer look at the nature of interaction in the CLT classroom, we can see that there are fundamental differences between the CLT classroom and the traditional classroom, which constitute the key factors affecting students’ commitment to learning. From a socio-cultural perspective, interactive participation in the CLT classroom creates a unique “zone of recent development.” Negotiation of meaning and linguistic adjustments between students form a dynamic support system when accomplishing communicative tasks. For example, in the group discussion of “solving community problems,” when students encountered expressive barriers, peer prompting or teacher guidance did not directly provide the correct answer, but rather constructed a cognitive framework through questioning and modeling. This interactive process facilitates the immediate transformation of language knowledge, and more importantly, cultivates the cognitive habit of continuous exploration. Linguistic research has found that the participatory features of the CLT classroom are highly compatible with the natural laws of language processing. In information gap activities, students’ questioning and responding in order to obtain unknown information actually simulate the language processing process in real contexts. This “output-driven input” mode of participation encourages learners to process the correlation between language form and meaning more deeply. When students repeatedly experience the cycle of “blocked expression-adjustment of strategies-successful communication” in communication, their language system will undergo progressive reconstruction. In the continuous practice of communication, students gradually change from “learners of language knowledge” to “users of language,” and this identity change brings about a qualitative change in their motivation to learn, and learners begin to see language learning as a way of self-realization rather than an externally imposed task. The quality of classroom participation no longer depends on external rewards and punishments, but rather on internal communicative needs and growth experiences. This shift marks a fundamental change in the nature of learning engagement - from passive compliance to active engagement, from superficial participation to deep learning. Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:

H1: CLT Classroom Participation positively influences Second Language Learning Engagement.

2.3 Mediating role of classroom atmosphere

Classroom atmosphere usually refers to the psychological and emotional atmosphere in an educational setting that influences students’ attitudes, behaviors, and learning outcomes. It is a combination of teacher-student interactions, classroom management, teaching methods, and environmental factors, and is an important part of teaching and learning. As Berliana and Habiby point out, a good classroom atmosphere helps to establish and maintain rapport between teachers and students, develops learners’ motivation and confidence, and facilitates the teaching-learning process (Lee and Mak, 2018). The role of learning atmosphere in the educational process is crucial, and numerous studies have shown that a positive learning atmosphere has an impact on students’ learning outcomes, emotional development, and behavioral norms. A positive learning atmosphere can stimulate students’ motivation to learn and make them more willing to actively participate in classroom activities. By creating an open and interactive atmosphere, teachers are able to encourage students to ask questions and participate in discussions, which enhances their sense of independent learning and interest in learning (Berliana and Habiby, 2024). Gedamu and Siyawik (2015)’s study in Ethiopia showed that classroom atmosphere is positively correlated with English language learning outcomes, i.e., the better the classroom atmosphere, the better the academic English language learning outcomes. In educational settings, classroom atmosphere shapes the pattern of teacher-student interactions and profoundly affects students’ learning experiences. Different classroom atmospheres may facilitate or hinder students’ language learning engagement, and the theoretical explanation of this process can be traced back to social constructivism.

Social constructivism holds that learning is essentially a socialized process of co-construction of knowledge. The theory emphasizes that an individual’s cognitive development does not take place in isolation, but is achieved gradually through interaction with others, linguistic communication, and collaborative activities. In the language learning classroom, language acquisition cannot be achieved without authentic social interaction. The classroom atmosphere, as a central feature of the learning environment, determines students’ willingness to engage in these interactions and to adapt and improve their language use. Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory emphasizes that all cognitive development occurs within the “zone of nearest development” constructed by social interactions. This fundamental point suggests that the ability of language interactions in the CLT classroom to promote development is essentially dependent on the effectiveness of the classroom atmosphere in scaffolding sociality (Vygotsky, 1978).

CLT emphasizes the promotion of learning through authentic language tasks and interactive activities, but its effectiveness depends largely on the openness, supportiveness and inclusiveness of the classroom atmosphere. A classroom atmosphere that encourages experimentation, allows for mistakes, and promotes collaboration can help students overcome language anxiety and increase their willingness to participate, leading to deeper engagement in learning. On the other hand, if the classroom atmosphere is stressful or judgmental, students may avoid interactions, resulting in lost learning opportunities. The low-anxiety environment created in a CLT classroom changes the emotional state of the learner. In contrast to the “fear of being wrong” atmosphere of a traditional classroom, CLT activities emphasize communicative effectiveness rather than linguistic correctness. In simulated situations such as role-plays, students can temporarily detach themselves from their “learner” status and use their roles as a cover for more comfortable expression. This increased sense of psychological security leads to more students being willing to experiment with complex language expressions, which in turn leads to richer opportunities for practice, and Guilloteaux and Dörnyei’s study further demonstrated that students’ willingness to communicate and their engagement in learning increased significantly when teachers used CLT strategies to create a supportive atmosphere. This suggests that classroom atmosphere plays the role of a bridge between CLT instructional practices and learning outcomes (Guilloteaux and Dörnyei, 2008). Based on this, the following hypotheses are proposed in this paper:

H2: Classroom atmosphere mediates the relationship between CLT Classroom Participation and Second Language Learning Engagement.

2.4 The mediating role of second language acquisition self-efficacy

Second Language Acquisition Self-Efficacy (SLA-SE) refers to the beliefs that learners hold about their ability to successfully acquire and use a second language (Mills, 2014). This concept originated from Bandura’s self-efficacy theory and has been given a specific connotation in the field of language learning (Bandura and Wessels, 1997). It encompasses learners’ confidence in general language competence, but also involves self-assessment in specific skill areas such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as beliefs about overcoming language barriers in authentic communicative situations (Raoofi et al., 2012). Different from ordinary self-efficacy, second language acquisition self-efficacy emphasizes cognitive judgment in the specific domain of language learning, and pays more attention to learners’ ability to psychologically regulate themselves in the face of language anxiety, cultural differences, and communicative pressure.

Existing studies have shown that second language acquisition self-efficacy plays an important role in language learning. First, it directly affects learners’ task choice and behavioral engagement, i.e., learners with high self-efficacy are more inclined to actively participate in classroom interactions and attempt more challenging language tasks (Graham, 2022). Second, it moderates the use of learning strategies, and learners with a high sense of efficacy are more likely to use metacognitive strategies to monitor their learning process (Wyatt, 2021). Third, it serves as a psychological buffer mechanism that mitigates the negative effects of language anxiety and helps learners maintain motivation when they make mistakes or fail to communicate. These effects make self-efficacy an important variable in predicting long-term persistence and eventual achievement in language learning (Bandura, 2001).

Social cognitive theory provides a systematic theoretical framework for understanding second language acquisition self-efficacy. Emphasizing the triadic interaction of the individual, behavior, and environment, the theory suggests that self-efficacy is formed through four main sources: direct experience, alternative experience, social persuasion, and physiological arousal (Ilmiani et al., 2021). In language learning contexts, this is manifested in learners constructing judgments of their competence through successful communicative experiences, observing peer performance, receiving teacher feedback, and managing anxiety (Liu, 2005). Based on the above theoretical perspectives and empirical findings, classroom participation, as a core element of CLT instruction, is likely to influence learners’ engagement in learning by shaping their self-efficacy. When learners frequently participate in classroom interactions, the successes and positive feedback they receive reinforce their beliefs in competence, and this enhanced self-efficacy translates into more sustained engagement in learning behaviors. This naturally leads to a research hypothesis that remains to be tested:

H3: Second Language Acquisition Self-Efficacy mediates the relationship between CLT Classroom Participation and Second Language Learning Engagement.

2.5 Chain intermediation

Based on Social Cognitive Theory and Social constructivism, this study proposes a chain mediation model: CLT classroom participation ultimately promotes second language learning engagement through the successive mediating roles of classroom atmosphere and second language acquisition self-efficacy. In the CLT classroom, enhanced student engagement interacts dynamically with frequent student-teacher interactions and collaborative group work. This interplay fosters a more supportive and inclusive classroom atmosphere. Such a positive environment, in turn, provides the psychological security necessary for students to experiment with language output and take learning risks, thereby further reinforcing their engagement. Second, in this low-anxiety, high-support classroom atmosphere, students gradually build up confidence in their own second-language competence, i.e., enhance their second-language acquisition self-efficacy, through successful communicative experiences and peer modeling. Finally, this enhanced self-efficacy will be transformed into more sustained learning behavioral input, which is manifested in deeper learning behaviors such as active participation in extracurricular exercises and persistence in completing difficult tasks. This chain of transmission reveals the complete path of “behavior-context-psychology-behavior” in the language learning environment: teaching behavior (participation) first improves the social environment (atmosphere), then strengthens personal beliefs (sense of efficacy), and ultimately transforms into learning behaviors (engagement).

At the same time, within the context of the Chinese educational environment, traditional classroom culture emphasizes knowledge transmission, teacher authority, and answer correctness. This has, often imperceptibly, fostered an environment of high evaluation anxiety, where students are generally sensitive to “losing face” and tend to avoid making mistakes in public (Cui and Teo, 2024). Against this backdrop, the interactive participation advocated by CLT itself may conflict with deep-seated socio-psychological risks. Consequently, the quality of the classroom atmosphere—specifically, whether it is perceived as a supportive, inclusive, and error-tolerant “safe space”—becomes the key social precondition determining whether students are willing to take the first step toward participation. A positive CLT classroom atmosphere primarily functions to provide “risk buffering” and “norm transformation,” temporarily suspending the traditional evaluation framework and reducing the psychological cost of participation (Cui et al., 2021). More importantly, this “safe space” created by a positive atmosphere is precisely the necessary social condition for the effective construction of second language acquisition self-efficacy among Chinese student populations. Social cognitive theory posits that self-efficacy stems from the interpretation of one’s own successful experiences. Under the high evaluative pressure of the Chinese classroom, without the guarantee of a “safe atmosphere,” any language attempt by a student may be internally perceived as a potential “failure” or “loss of face,” thus preventing its transformation into a “mastery experience” that strengthens self-efficacy. Conversely, in an environment explicitly perceived as supportive, students’ participatory behaviors, peer collaboration, and teachers’ encouraging feedback can be positively interpreted as “social persuasion” and “vicarious experiences,” thereby powerfully shaping their confidence in “I can communicate effectively in English” (Chen and Boore, 2010).

It can therefore be inferred that in the context of Chinese university English classrooms, the benefits of CLT participation may not be directly and sufficiently translated into students’ personal confidence (self-efficacy) and deeper engagement. It requires, and indeed must first pass through, the improvement of the classroom socio-psychological environment (atmosphere). An improved atmosphere, by reducing risk and providing social support, creates the conditions for students to positively internalize their participation experiences into personal self-efficacy. Once self-efficacy is enhanced, it can then sustainably drive deeper learning engagement. This sequence—"from social climate to personal agency”—constitutes a testable transmission pathway hypothesis aligned with the learning psychology of Chinese students.

Based on this, this study proposes a hypothesis (the proposed model is shown in Figure 1):

Figure 1

Figure 1. Proposed modeling diagrams.

H4: Classroom atmosphere and Second Language Acquisition Self-Efficacy serially mediate the relationship between CLT Classroom Participation and Second Language Learning Engagement.

3 Research design

3.1 Questionnaire distribution and participants

This study adopted a cross-sectional survey design and conducted empirical research between February and August 2025. To ensure representativeness in terms of geographical distribution, institutional type, and teaching context, seven comprehensive universities from different regions of China were selected: Wuhan University of Technology (Central China), Shenzhen University (Southern China), Zhejiang University (Eastern China), Soochow University (Yangtze River Delta), Shaanxi Normal University (Northwest China), Qingdao University (Eastern Coastal Region), and Beijing Jiaotong University (Northern China). These institutions range from top-tier research universities to distinctive local key universities, each with unique characteristics in their public English curriculum design and teaching resources. Prior to the formal investigation, the research team optimized the measurement tools through a small-scale pilot test to ensure the questionnaire demonstrated good reliability and validity. The study employed a stratified random sampling method, stratifying the population by academic year and college before randomly selecting public English teaching classes as the survey units. During the data collection process, the researchers carried out on-site organization and implementation throughout. All participating students signed informed consent forms after fully understanding the research content, with the entire process strictly adhering to Chinese ethical guidelines for research. A total of 680 questionnaires were distributed in this survey. After rigorous screening of the returned questionnaires, 656 valid questionnaires were ultimately obtained, resulting in an effective response rate of 96.5%, providing reliable support for subsequent statistical analysis of the data. All collected valid questionnaire data were processed and analyzed using SPSS 26.0 and AMOS 24.0 software. The study included a total of 656 valid samples, and the distribution of their basic demographic characteristics is shown in Table 1. In terms of gender, female participants slightly outnumbered male participants (53.8% vs. 46.2%). Regarding academic year distribution, all four undergraduate years were covered, with freshmen accounting for the highest proportion (32.2%), followed by sophomores (28.5%), juniors (22.9%), and seniors (16.4%). In terms of household registration (hukou), urban students (59.0%) outnumbered rural students (41.0%). As for English proficiency, using the College English Test Band 4 (CET-4) scores as a reference, the majority of students were at an intermediate level (CET-4 scores between 425 and 550, accounting for 51.1%), followed by higher proficiency (CET-4 scores of 551 or above, 28.2%), and lower proficiency (CET-4 scores of 424 or below, 20.7%). Overall, the sample demonstrates a relatively balanced distribution in terms of gender, academic year, household registration type, and English proficiency, indicating a certain degree of representativeness.

Table 1

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample (N = 656).

3.2 Measurement of variables

All the variables in this paper were measured using the scales developed by established scholars in the past with modifications, and some of the dimensions that were not covered in the context of this study were eliminated after focus group discussions. Due to the regional nature of the respondents in this paper, some of the recipients from non-native English-speaking countries were measured using the common translation-back translation of the original scales (Chen et al., 2024). To ensure linguistic and cultural appropriateness, a systematic translation and back-translation process was implemented for the English-origin scales. First, two bilingual researchers in applied linguistics independently completed the initial translation. They then compared and discussed their versions to produce a consolidated Chinese draft. Next, another bilingual researcher who had not been exposed to the original scales performed a back-translation of the Chinese draft into English. The research team compared the back-translated version with the original scale item by item and conducted multiple rounds of discussion and revision for items with semantic discrepancies. Special attention was paid to adjusting educational context-specific terms (e.g., “class participation”) and expressions to better align with the actual context of Chinese university classrooms. Finally, the Chinese version of the scale was reviewed in a focus group with two frontline English teachers to ensure clarity, lack of ambiguity, and ease of understanding for Chinese students. This process aimed to maximize the ecological validity of the measurement tools within the Chinese educational context.

For example, for the measurement of CLT Classroom Participation (CCP) in this paper, we refer to Fassinger’s Classroom Participation Scale and Anderson et al.’s School Participation Scale, and while fully retaining the core interactive features of the CLT pedagogical approach, we organize four dimensions of CLT Classroom Participation (CCP), which include Behavioral Participation, Task Participation, Verbal Participation, and Social Interaction Participation, and finally form the four dimensions of this paper. The four dimensions of behavioral participation, task participation, linguistic participation, and social interaction participation are finally formed into the four-dimensional scale of this paper. For the measurement of classroom atmosphere, we refer to Chen et al.’s learning atmosphere scale (Chen et al., 2024) and Chen et al.’s classroom atmosphere scale (Anderson et al., 2019). All the scales in this paper were validated with standardized reliability tests to ensure that they could be used in the following research. Two experts in the field of applied linguistics with the title of professor and three frontline teachers with more than 10 years of experience in CLT teaching reviewed the scales in this paper. To ensure clarity, the references for each measure are given, as well as one measure from each variable selected for the reader’s clarity, see Table 2.

Table 2

Table 2. Definition of variables and sources of reference scales.

4 Data analysis

4.1 Reliability

Scale reliability was assessed through internal consistency measures, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients serving as the primary metric. See Table 3, the analysis demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties, as evidenced by an overall α of 0.871 and all subscale coefficients exceeding the 0.7 benchmark, confirming the measurement instruments’ reliability.

Table 3

Table 3. Results of confidence analysis.

4.2 Exploratory factor analysis

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) serves as a preliminary analytical tool to identify underlying relationships among variables by grouping correlated measurement items. This technique helps researchers uncover the latent structure of constructs while reducing data dimensionality for subsequent SEM analysis.

Prior to EFA, the dataset underwent essential suitability assessments including the KMO measure and Bartlett’s sphericity test. Using SPSS 27.0, See Table 4, our analysis yielded a KMO statistic of 0.868 (exceeding the 0.8 threshold) with significant Bartlett’s results (p < 0.001), confirming the dataset’s appropriateness for factor extraction.

Table 4

Table 4. KMO and Bartlett’s test.

See Table 5, a total of four factors were extracted in this study with eigenroot values greater than 1. The variance explained by the rotation of these four factors was 19.457, 18.859, 16.240, and 16.026%, respectively, and the cumulative variance explained by the rotation was 70.582%.

Table 5

Table 5. Total variance explained.

In the rotated component matrix, each component loads primarily on a specific research variable, forming a clear factor structure. According to Table 6, it can be seen that based on the results of the factor analysis and the meaning of each item, the four male factors were named Classroom atmosphere (CA), CLT Classroom Participation(CCP), Second Language Acquisition Self-Efficacy (SLAS), Second Language Learning Engagement (SLLE).

Table 6

Table 6. Rotated component matrix^a.

4.3 Validation factor analysis

The validity of a scale represents whether the measurement items of the scale are accurate and valid for the variable to be measured, and analyzes the magnitude of the deviation of the measured value from the true value of the target. Validity analyses include discriminant validity analysis and convergent validity analysis. The measure of discriminant validity is the average of variance extracted (AVE), which reflects the magnitude of differences between potential variables. Convergent validity reflects the correlation between the items within the latent variables, and requires that the Pearson’s correlation coefficient between the latent variables is less than the square root of AVE.

This study used AMOS 24. 0 to fit the structural equation model to the questionnaire data. The main fitting indicators and criteria are shown in Table 7. It can be seen that all the indicators are within a reasonable range, so the model fit passes.

Table 7

Table 7. Model fit test results.

The convergent validity assessment yielded robust psychometric evidence, as presented in Table 8. All indicator loadings surpassed the 0.6 threshold (p < 0.001), demonstrating strong item-construct relationships. The composite reliability coefficients (CR) exceeded 0.7, while average variance extracted (AVE) values all met the 0.5 criterion, collectively confirming the measurement model’s adequacy.

Table 8

Table 8. Convergence validity results.

The discriminant validity assessment (Table 9) revealed that the square roots of AVE values (diagonal elements in bold) exceeded all inter-construct correlations (lower triangle), thereby satisfying the Fornell-Larcker criterion for establishing discriminant validity.

Table 9

Table 9. Distinguishes validity results.

4.4 Common deviation test

To assess potential common method bias, we conducted Harman’s single-factor test. See Table 10, the analysis revealed four distinct factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0, with the first factor accounting for only 34.33% of total variance - well below the 40% threshold that would indicate substantial common method variance. These results, combined with satisfactory model fit indices, confirm that common method bias does not significantly affect our findings.

Table 10

Table 10. Common methods deviation test.

4.5 Correlation analysis

As can be seen from the results of correlation analysis in Table 11, all of the variables involved in this study show significance among them, and the values of correlation coefficients are greater than 0, which means that there is a significant positive correlation among all variables.

Table 11

Table 11. Correlation analysis.

4.6 Path analysis

The latent variable factor path models for Classroom atmosphere, CLT Classroom Participation, Second Language Acquisition Self-Efficacy, Second Language Learning Engagement were constructed based on the theoretical hypotheses, and the results were as follows (Figure 2).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Adjusted structural equation model.

Firstly, the main effect of the whole sample was tested, and all the paths were significant, and the results are shown in Table 12 Path Analysis Results of Structural Equation Modeling. Among the paths affecting Second Language Learning Engagement, Classroom atmosphere, CLT Classroom Participation, Second Language Acquisition Self-Efficacy have significant positive effects on Second Language Learning Engagement, and the significance coefficients P are less than 0.05 and the standardized regression coefficients are greater than 0, the hypothesis is valid. The coefficient of P is less than 0.05 and the standardized regression coefficients are greater than 0, the hypothesis is valid.

Table 12

Table 12. SEM path results.

4.7 Chain mediation test

In this study, the bias-corrected Bootstrap method was used to validate the mediation studied using Amos 24.0 software. The 95% confidence intervals were calculated by repeatedly sampling the data 5,000 times. Both estimation methods, Bias-corrected and percentile, indicated that mediation was valid if they did not include 0 in the 95% confidence interval.

From Table 13 Mediator effect test, the total effect of CCP → SLLE was significant (Estimate = 0.285, 95% CI [0.205, 0.364]), demonstrating an overall positive relationship. The mediation analysis revealed three significant pathways: CA served as a mediator between CCP and SLLE (Estimate = 0.040, 95% CI [0.024, 0.062]); SLAS mediated the CCP → SLLE relationship (Estimate = 0.032, 95% CI [0.004, 0.067]); and a significant chain mediation pathway existed through CCP → CA → SLAS→SLLE (Estimate = 0.006, 95% CI [0.001, 0.014]). After accounting for these mediators, the direct effect of CCP → SLLE remained significant (Estimate = 0.207, 95% CI [0.129, 0.288]), indicating partial mediation. All mediation effects were statistically validated as neither the Bias-corrected nor Percentile bootstrap 95% confidence intervals contained zero, confirming the robustness of these mediation pathways in the study. The results collectively demonstrate that both CA and SLAS operate as independent mediators while also functioning sequentially in a chain mediation process to explain the relationship between CCP and SLLE.

Table 13

Table 13. Mediator effect test.

5 Discussion

The results of this study provide a new theoretical perspective for understanding the effectiveness of the implementation of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Chinese higher education settings. It was found that the effect of CLT on students’ engagement in second language learning is not a simple linear relationship, but rather a transmission mechanism through classroom atmosphere and self-efficacy. This finding challenges the traditional reductionist view of CLT research that directly relates teaching methods to learning outcomes, and highlights the critical role of educational and cultural contexts in the transformation of teaching methods.

This study validates a serial mediation pathway, advancing research on the effectiveness of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in Chinese classrooms from questioning “whether it works” to elucidating “how it works” at a mechanistic level. Diverging from earlier research paradigms that primarily focused on establishing direct links between CLT and language performance outcomes, the present research reveals that CLT’s impact operates as a socio-psychological sequential catalytic process (Guilloteaux and Dörnyei, 2008). Crucially, the confirmation of the “classroom atmosphere → self-efficacy” link strongly supports and deepens the conclusion drawn by Wang et al. that the second language acquisition self-efficacy of Chinese learners is profoundly shaped by their social environment (Wang et al., 2014). This finding further clarifies the underlying logic: within the distinctive Chinese classroom culture—characterized by high-evaluation anxiety, influenced by concerns for “face” (mianzi), and emphasizing the avoidance of public mistakes —a positive classroom atmosphere must first serve as a “safety buffer” (Cui et al., 2021). This social precondition enables the experiences students gain from CLT interactions to be effectively transformed into “mastery experiences” that build personal confidence, thereby ultimately driving deeper learning engagement. Consequently, this discovery provides a key implication for the localized practice of CLT that transcends technical considerations: successful CLT implementation concerns not only the design of communicative activities but also the intentional cultivation and maintenance of a social climate in which students can attain a sense of “psychological safety.”

At a deeper level, the findings reflect the tensions and possibilities in the process of localizing globalized educational theories. The interactive, student-centered teaching concepts advocated by CLT differ significantly from the traditional knowledge-transferring classroom culture in China. However, the current findings show that when CLT can effectively improve the quality of classroom interaction and enhance students’ self-efficacy, its effect of promoting learning can be fully realized. This suggests that the cultural adaptation of teaching methods does not lie in accepting or rejecting a certain model in its entirety, but rather in finding a combination of foreign ideas and local educational practices. In other words, the qualities of Chinese educational culture that emphasize collective harmony and respect for teachers may have a unique chemical reaction with the interactive nature of CLT, forming a communicative teaching model with local characteristics.

From the perspective of sociocultural theory, this study reveals the socially constructed nature of language learning. Classroom interaction is an important place for practicing language skills, as well as for constructing identity and social relationships. When a supportive social atmosphere is created in the CLT classroom, students are more likely to break through the limitations of “language learners” and try to negotiate meaning as “language users,” which is a breakthrough in the development of language proficiency, and also explains why it is difficult to achieve the expected results with the implementation of CLT technology alone, and why attention must be paid to its psychosocial impact mechanism.

The practical implications of the study are worth exploring in depth. In the current context of internationalization of Chinese higher education, the findings suggest that: first, teachers’ professional development needs to go beyond the technical training of teaching methods to strengthen their cognitive and regulatory abilities of the social dynamics of the classroom; second, the teaching evaluation system should incorporate process indicators, such as the quality of classroom interactions and the students’ psychological experience, and not only focus on the final linguistic outputs; and lastly, the design of the curriculum needs to take into account the Chinese students’ Finally, curriculum design needs to take into account Chinese students’ learning characteristics and incorporate appropriate structural support in CLT activities to balance communicative freedom and knowledge systematicity. These findings provide important insights into the development of language education theory. It suggests that effective language teaching requires simultaneous attention to three dimensions: the technical dimension of teaching methods, the social dimension of classroom interaction, and the individual dimension of learner psychology. This multidimensional perspective provides a more comprehensive framework for understanding the complex relationship between teaching methods and learning outcomes, and opens up new directions for subsequent research, such as exploring the similarities and differences in the mechanisms of CLT’s action in different cultural contexts, or examining how emerging technologies reshape the nature of classroom interaction.

6 Shortcomings and prospects

Although this study has made some valuable findings, there are still shortcomings. First, the study sample was mainly drawn from college students in key universities in China, which may not be fully representative of a broader group of college students, especially those with a weak foundation in English or those who come from areas where educational resources are relatively scarce. Second, the study adopted a cross-sectional design, which could reveal the associations among the variables but could not determine the chronological order of causality. For example, the question of whether a good classroom atmosphere promotes the effects of CLT or whether the successful implementation of CLT improves the classroom atmosphere needs to be further verified by longitudinal tracking studies (e.g., cross-lagged modeling, etc.). Third, the study mainly relied on students’ self-reported data, and although the questionnaire was designed with reference to well-established scales, it may still be affected by the social expectation effect, and future research could incorporate multiple data sources such as classroom observation and teacher evaluation. In addition, the study did not fully consider the influence of external environmental factors, such as class size, teaching equipment and other objective conditions that may have a moderating effect on the effectiveness of CLT implementation. In the future, comparative studies across institutions and regions can be conducted to test the generalizability of the findings; teaching intervention experiments can be designed to verify the causal mechanisms through quasi-experimental studies; more refined classroom atmosphere assessment tools can be developed, and qualitative research methods can be combined to understand the nature of teacher-student interactions in-depth; these studies will help to push forward the localized development of the theory of CLT, and provide a more practicable and feasible These studies will help promote the localization of CLT theory and provide more practical solutions to improve the quality of English teaching in China.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study, as the research is of an investigative nature and does not involve any form of intervention in the participants. All data collection is based on publicly available or anonymizable information and does not involve sensitive personal information or commercial interests. In accordance with the “Measures for Ethical Review of Life Science and Medical Research Involving Human Beings” (Article 32, Chapter iii) (https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2023-02/28content_5743658.htm, accessed on 16 May 2025). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author contributions

YC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. HY: Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. MF: Supervision, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that Generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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