Effects of organic fertilizers on soil properties in arid zones and their mechanism of action

China’s arid and semi-arid regions, encompassing approximately half of the nation’s landmass, exhibit notably poor soil quality compared to other regions. The application of organic fertilizers stands out as a crucial strategy for enhancing soil characteristics, boosting crop yields, improving agricultural product quality, and fostering environmental sustainability in these areas. This practice represents a primary avenue for enhancing cultivated land quality, remediating saline-alkali soil, reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices in China. Organic fertilization plays a pivotal role in advancing the quantity and quality of cultivated land, serving as a key component of the ecological “trinity” protection system. Nevertheless, the diverse array of organic fertilizers available yields varying effects on soil and crops. Overall, the application of organic fertilizers tends to decrease soil pH (especially for initially alkaline soils), with an average reduction of 0.21 units, among which the pH improvement effects on saline-alkaline soils and gray desert soils are particularly prominent; the increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) ranges from 3.82% to 113.3%; it can increase soil electrical conductivity by 18%–35%, and exhibits significant improvement effects on soil bulk density (with an average reduction of 5.2%–22%) and aggregate structure (with an average increase of 49.95%–61.67% in mean weight diameter, MWD); notably, effects such as pH regulation, SOC enhancement, and bulk density reduction are closely related to the type and application rate of organic fertilizers. For crops, the sole application of organic fertilizers can already increase yields, but the combined application of organic fertilizers yields a more significant yield-increasing effect (with an increase range of 4.31%–123.3%). Consequently, this study synthesizes cuttingedge research on organic fertilizers, with a specific focus on their impact on arid soil and underlying mechanisms. By offering theoretical insights, this review aims to inform the judicious application of organic fertilizers in arid regions, while delineating future research directions in this critical domain.

1 Introduction

The prolonged use of chemical fertilizers poses a significant threat to both crop productivity and soil quality (Bonanomi et al., 2020; He et al., 2024). In contrast, organic fertilizers offer considerable potential for enhancing plant growth within the soil environment. Organic fertilizers are primarily derived from rural and urban waste sources, encompassing plant residues (such as straw, green manure, and cake fertilizer) from the agricultural sector, livestock manure from animal husbandry, domestic waste, and similar sources (Wang and Cui, 2024; Li F. et al., 2025). These fertilizers are rich in organic matter, providing plants with a diverse array of essential inorganic and organic nutrients (Graves et al., 2019; Wang and Cui, 2024; Liao et al., 2025). The application of organic fertilizers can enhance various soil aspects, including soil organic matter (SOM) content, soil structure, aggregate stability, nutrient absorption, nutrient utilization efficiency, soil microbial activity, soil moisture levels, among others. Such improvements are advantageous for preserving and enhancing soil health, environmental quality, and crop productivity (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Advantages of organic fertilizer on soil in arid zones (The application of organic ferti-lizers improves the soil organic matter, cation exchange capacity, nutrient uptake, microbial ac-tivity and soil health, etc.).

Arid and semi-arid areas cover 40% of the Earth’s land area and support more than 38% of the world’s populations (Shaji et al., 2021; Ahmed et al., 2023). Arid and semi-arid areas all over the world face problems such as low and erratic rainfall, high temperatures, low nutrient content and salinization of soils, which are exacerbated by high temperatures, strong winds, low relative humidity, distribution of rainy days, intensity and length of rainfall, and premature onset and end of rainfall (Swindale et al., 1981; Shaji et al., 2021). Various adverse natural factors and causes of human damage in such areas often lead to land degradation, with desertification being one of the serious consequences of land degradation, and the United Nations Conference to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, hereinafter referred to as the Convention), a legally binding environmental convention, pays special attention to desertification, in addition to soil problems such as low soil fertility, severe salinization and poor soil structure in such areas (Akhtar-Schuster et al., 2022; Tarolli et al., 2024). Desertification is one of the most severe outcomes of land degradation.

Desertification is one of the most severe outcomes of land degradation. Many countries have also taken positive measures to address soil desertification in arid regions, among which replacing chemical fertilizers with organic fertilizers in agriculture is one of the highly effective methods. Notably, soil management in China’s arid regions is one of the core areas for fulfilling the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and implementing the Convention. Since signing the Convention in 1994, China has not only significantly improved the soil conditions in arid regions through institutional development, project implementation, and technological innovation, fulfilling multiple international commitments ahead of schedule, but also contributed to global soil management in arid regions through technological transfer and international cooperation (Kong et al., 2021). Through multifaceted efforts, remarkable achievements have been made in improving soil conditions, restoring ecosystems, and promoting sustainable development in arid regions.

Therefore, this paper provides an overview of the characteristics of the soil environment in arid and semi-arid regions of China and the various ways to improve the soils of arid zones through the application of organic fertilizers in agricultural production. In addition, the intrinsic mechanisms of their improvement in soil quality are also explored in depth. These studies aim to clarify the specific application rates and methods for the scientific and rational use of organic fertilizers in arid regions, with the expectation of providing solutions for guiding the comprehensive utilization of resources, the restoration of ecological diversity, and the maintenance of the sustainable productivity of soils in arid regions in the future.

2 Soil characteristics of arid zones

Arid zones have an important position as unique ecosystems on Earth. Whether from an ecological perspective or a resource perspective, arid zones are pivotal, and arid zone soils play a key role in global biodiversity, the global carbon cycle and nutrient cycling (Dou et al., 2024). Against the backdrop of global warming, arid zones are facing a number of challenges, including rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns, which have led to serious threats to the stability and sustainability of their ecosystems. According to the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the extent of arid zones has shown an expansion trend in some areas over the past decades, which has had a far-reaching impact on the local ecological balance, agricultural production, and human life (Kaur et al., 2025). Therefore, the study of soil properties in arid zones (Table 1) is of great significance for ecological conservation and resource utilization.

Table 1

Table 1. The differences in soil characteristics between arid regions and non-arid regions.

2.1 Physical characteristics of soils in arid zones

2.1.1 Permission to reuse and copyright

Sandy soils, loamy soils, and clayey soils represent the predominant soil texture classes in arid regions (Tong R. et al., 2024; Tong Y. et al., 2024). Sandy soils are widely distributed in arid zones, in which the relative content of sand particles is high, especially in desert areas, such as the Taklamakan Desert in China and the Namibian Desert in Africa, where the sand content can reach more than 80% (Tao et al., 2023; Zhao C. et al., 2025). High sand content makes the texture of sandy soil loose, large pore space between particles, excellent aeration and water permeability, and strong evaporation will lead to the surface layer of salt cementation, hindering water infiltration, resulting in the soil is difficult to maintain sufficient moisture for plant growth (Ben Ahmed et al., 2012; Ye et al., 2024; Huang and Wang, 2024). Therefore, plants capable of growing in such soils often have well-developed root systems to reach deep underground in search of water and nutrients, such as Alhagi sparsifolia (Jiang et al., 2022a). Growing suitable crops exerts a positive effect on soil texture improvement in arid regions (Table 2).

Table 2

Table 2. Common soil types and suitable crops in arid regions.

Loamy soils are found in oases in arid zones, along rivers and in some premountain alluvial fans (Daniel et al., 2017). This type of soil has a moderate proportion of sand, powder and clay, and the presence of powder makes the soil have good aeration, water permeability, and the ability to retain water and fertilizers, which makes it an ideal agricultural soil compared to sandy soil (Ding and El-Zein, 2024). Loamy soil can provide plants with a relatively stable supply of water and nutrients, and is suitable for growing plants that are slightly less drought-tolerant, such as wheat (Triticum aestivum) and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) (Saqib et al., 2004; Kurtulmuş et al., 2022; He et al., 2023).

Clay soils have a relatively small distribution in arid zones and are mainly found in low-lying, poorly drained areas or areas subject to long-term hydrostatic deposition (Shanmugam, 2022; Vakili et al., 2024). The content of clay particles in such soils is relatively high. As clay particles have a large specific surface area and a strong adsorption capacity, they result in clay soils that are sticky and heavy, with small pores and poor aeration and permeability, but with a strong ability to retain water and fertilizer (Wang et al., 2016). When planting plants on clay soil, the soil is prone to root damage due to dryness and cracking in the dry season, and root hypoxia and root rotting in rainfall, so attention needs to be paid to improving the aeration and drainage of the soil (Kozlowski, 1985).

2.1.2 Soil structure

Scarce precipitation in arid areas, low soil moisture content and high sand content make the activity of cementing material lower, thus the stability of soil aggregates is poor, and the soil has more large pores, which is easy to form a variety of undesirable structural bodies (Han et al., 2025). When encountered with strong winds or heavy rain and other extreme weather, the poorly stabilized aggregates are easily broken (Mina et al., 2023). Under the action of strong winds, the aggregates in the soil surface layer are blown away, resulting in serious soil wind erosion. Studies have shown that in this type of area in the windy season, soil wind erosion can reach several kilograms per square meter per year; and in heavy rainfall, the rapid disintegration of the agglomerates, soil pores are blocked, soil pores and soil water and air storage and transmission of an important channel, the blockage will make the number of soil pores and the distribution of the soil pores is not uniform, affecting the soil aeration and water permeability (Yadollah-Roudbari et al., 2024). Rainwater that could have slowly seeped down, due to the destruction of agglomerates, a large number of surface runoff is formed, but the surface soil moisture is easy to evaporate and dissipate, and the deep soil moisture is difficult to be absorbed and utilized by the plant root system, which increases the difficulty of the plant’s survival and exacerbates soil erosion (Zhao et al., 2024). This situation directly affects the soil’s water, gas, heat transfer and erosion resistance, forming a variety of undesirable structural bodies (Foster et al., 2015). In farmland, over-grazing areas and areas subject to strong interference from human activities in arid zones, soil clods are large in size, generally more than 5 cm in diameter, with irregular shapes and obvious edges and corners. The soil is compact inside and has a high bulk density, usually between 1.3 and 1.6 g/cm³, forming a block structure; in sandy deserts, wind-accumulated dune areas and some degraded grasslands in arid zones, the soils in these places are coarser in texture and the soil particles are finer, with a grain size of 0.25–2 mm, showing a single dispersed state or weak agglomerates (Baranian Kabir et al., 2020), and lacking sufficient biological amelioration, forming a granular structure (Zhao Y. et al., 2025); in deserts, the soil in agricultural fields, overgrazed areas and areas with strong interference from human activities is larger, with a diameter of more than 5 cm, and a shape that is more irregular and with more obvious edges (De Vos T. N. C. and Virgo, 1969). Formation of granular structure; in the clay soil layer of the desert grassland zone, the soil texture in these areas is sticky, and by the climatic influence of dry and wet alternation is obvious, which provides the conditions for the formation of nucleated structure; in the bare surface of the arid zone, by the wind or raindrops splashing influence of the region and by mechanical compaction of the roads, farmland around the periphery and other places, in the top layer of the soil crust or the compacted layer of the soil surface layer is easy to form the soil surface tightly compacted, with a low porosity, presented as a The thickness is generally less than 1 cm (Ma et al., 2020). Defining the bad structure of arid zone soil helps to understand the formation mechanism, characteristics and distribution law of different structure types, provides important support for the construction of the theoretical system of arid zone soil structure, and enriches the research content of soil science.

2.1.3 Soil capacity

Soil bulk density has an important effect on plant root growth (Farahani, 2024). Due to the dry climate in arid areas, the pore space between soil particles is relatively large, and the soil bulk density is relatively low in some areas. Soil with low bulk density has large pores and good aeration and water permeability, which is favorable for the extension and respiration of plant roots (Table 3). Roots are able to grow and root more easily in the soil and absorb water and nutrients (Lanari et al., 2025). In some areas of sandy and windy soils at the edge of deserts, the soil bulk density may be between 1.3 and 1.5 g/cm³ (Ma et al., 2022).

Table 3

Table 3. Typical soil types, geographical coverage and basic properties of arid regions in China.

2.2 Chemical characterization of soils in arid zones

2.2.1 Soil pH

Tropical and humid regions have a humid climate. High rainfall leads to leaching losses of nutrients such as available phosphorus and the loss of alkaline minerals (e.g., calcium and magnesium salts). In tropical regions, biological productivity is high, and plant residues decompose rapidly. During decomposition, microorganisms produce large amounts of organic acids; meanwhile, plant roots also secrete organic acids. These organic acids further acidify the soil. Under acidic soil conditions, the solubility of aluminum (Al³⁺) increases, significantly exacerbating acidification. In some acidic red soils in tropical regions, the concentration of Al³⁺ is often higher than that of alkaline ions, and it is considered one of the key drivers of low soil pH (Pan et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2024).

The hydrolysis of Al³⁺:

The first step (the primary reaction, with the strongest degree) (Equation 1).

${\text{Al}}^{3+}+{\mathrm{H}}_2\mathrm{O}\leftrightarrow \text{Al\hspace{0.17em}}{\left(\text{OH}\right)}^{+}+{\mathrm{H}}^{+}(1)$

The second step (the secondary reaction, with a weaker degree) (Equation 2).

$\text{Al\hspace{0.17em}}{\left(\text{OH}\right)}^{+}+{\mathrm{H}}_2\mathrm{O}\leftrightarrow \text{Al\hspace{0.17em}}{\left(\text{OH}\right)}_2^{+}+{\mathrm{H}}^{+}(2)$

The third step (a negligible reaction, with an extremely weak degree) (Equation 3).

$\text{Al\hspace{0.17em}}{\left(\text{OH}\right)}_2^{+}+{\mathrm{H}}_2\mathrm{O}\leftrightarrow \text{Al\hspace{0.17em}}{\left(\text{OH}\right)}_3\left(\text{colloid}\right)+{\mathrm{H}}^{+}(3)$

By contrast, in regions with low precipitation and high evaporation, soil water carries salts from deeper layers to the surface during evaporation, leading to salt accumulation. As a result, soils in arid zones are typically alkaline, with pH values commonly ranging from 7.5 to 9.5 (Xu et al., 2019; Shi et al., 2023). In addition to the special climatic conditions of arid zones, this phenomenon is also related to the process of soil formation (Haj-Amor et al., 2016). Soil matrices in arid zones are rich in alkaline sub-stances such as calcium carbonate, which also alkalize the soil during weathering and soil formation (Ball et al., 2023). In the arid regions of northwestern China, such as the Tarim Basin and the Junggar Basin in Xinjiang, the soil pH is generally high, and in some areas it can be more than 8.5 (Gui et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2025). And the vegetation in this area is relatively sparse and mostly drought-resistant and saline-resistant plants (Kong et al., 2025). During the growth of these plants, the root system also secretes some acidic or alkaline substances that affect soil pH (Chamkhi et al., 2022). Some plants absorb soil cations, such as sodium and calcium ions, through their root systems, thus changing the ionic composition of the soil solution and thus affecting soil pH (Custos et al., 2020). During decomposition, plant residues release acid or alkaline substances that exert a measurable influence on soil pH (Tong R. et al., 2024).

2.2.2 Soil nutrients

The levels of N, P and K in soils of arid zones play a key role in plant growth (Duan et al., 2004). Nitrogen makes up about 78% of the atmosphere. But most organisms cannot use it directly. Non-arid regions have enough water. This water usually helps nitrogen-fixing microorganisms work better. These microorganisms include bacteria and archaea. They use nitrogenase to turn N₂ into NH₃ (Hayatsu et al., 2021). The ammonia from nitrogen fixation enters the soil. Then it goes through many changes. These changes include mineralization, nitrification, denitrification, and plants’ uptake and assimilation (Rastetter et al., 2021). Arid regions are different. Their total nitrogen content is relatively low. It is usually between 0.05% and 0.15% (Liu et al., 2011). This is mainly because arid regions have little vegetation. So, there are few sources of soil organic matter. Also, water limits microbial activity. This makes microorganisms weak at fixing and transforming nitrogen (Liu S. et al., 2021). N in the soil exists mostly in the organic state, and the content of inorganic nitrogen (such as ammonium nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen) that can be directly absorbed and utilized by plants is relatively small (Kaye and Hart, 1997). In some desert soils that have not been fertilized for a long time, the content of ammonium nitrogen may be only a few milligrams per kilogram, and the content of nitrate nitrogen is also low, which seriously restricts the plants' access to nitrogen, resulting in slow growth, yellowing of leaves, short plants and other phenomena (Jiang et al., 2022b).

Phosphorus in soils of non-arid regions primarily originates from phosphate fertilizer application, plant residue cycling, and manure. Phosphorus in phosphate fertilizers exists in inorganic forms, which can be directly absorbed by plants (Grzebisz et al., 2024). In soils of non-arid regions, dissolved phosphorus tends to interact with cations such as Fe²⁺ and Al³⁺, forming insoluble phosphate salts (e.g., AlPO₄·2H₂O, FePO₄·2H₂O), which directly reduces the bioavailability of phosphorus. Occluded phosphorus (O-P) is a stable form of phosphorus in soils. It is mainly encapsulated within iron oxides [e.g., Fe₂O₃, Fe (OH)₃] and hardly directly accessible to organisms. Studies on wheat field soils have shown that O-P makes an extremely low direct contribution to the phosphorus accumulation of winter wheat (with the smallest direct path coefficient), serving as a “hardly utilizable phosphorus source” (Werner and Prietzel, 2015). Its bioavailability is significantly lower than that of other forms such as Ca₂-P and Al-P. All these factors remarkably affect the bioavailability of phosphorus and its accessibility in ecosystems (Dey et al., 2024). In contrast, arid soils have low phosphorus content. Their total phosphorus content is usually between 0.1% and 0.3%. Most phosphorus occurs in the form of insoluble phosphate compounds. P levels in soils are also at low levels, with total phosphorus levels typically ranging from 0.1% to 0.3% (Bi et al., 2023). Most of the P exists in the form of insoluble phosphate, which is less effective (Rawat et al., 2021). Under drought conditions, phosphate ions in the soil easily combine with calcium ions, iron ions, aluminum ions, etc., to form insoluble phosphate precipitation, further reducing the availability of phosphorus (Peng et al., 2024). In the calcareous aeolian sand-soil (a common subtype of aeolian sand-soil in arid and semi-arid regions such as the Mu Us Sandy Land: based on aeolian sandy soil, it has a calcium carbonate content of ≥5% (showing calcareous reaction), loose texture, strong water permeability, poor water and nutrient retention, and an alkaline pH range of 7.5–8.5. This soil type is mostly distributed in sandy areas with calcareous parent materials or aeolian sediments rich in calcium carbonate) of the Mu Us Sandy Land, which is located in the semi-arid-arid transition zone of northern China, the high calcium ion content leads to the combination of a large amount of phosphate ions with calcium ions. This results in extremely low available phosphorus content in the soil, which is insufficient to meet the needs of plant growth (He et al., 2020). Consequently, plant roots struggle to absorb adequate phosphorus, affecting physiological processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and energy metabolism of plants, and ultimately hindering plant growth and development and reducing flowering and fruiting (Yan et al., 2023).

In the case of potassium, soils in arid zones are relatively rich in total potassium, but there are also problems of effectiveness. Potassium in soils mainly exists in the mineral state, and needs to be weathered before it can be gradually released as ionic potassium for plant uptake. In arid environments, the slow weathering of minerals results in a low rate of potassium release, which is unable to meet the plant’s demand for potassium in a timely manner. Although the total potassium content of the soil may be in the range of 1%–3%, the exchangeable potassium content is relatively low, and in some sandy soils the exchangeable potassium content may be only 1%–5% of the total potassium conten (Haro and Benito, 2019). This makes plants susceptible to symptoms of potassium deficiency during growth, such as scorched leaf margins and reduced stress tolerance (Fontana et al., 2020).

2.2.3 Soil organic matter

Soil organic matter is one of the important indicators of soil fertility in arid zones (Tiessen et al., 1994). Arid zones have a dry climate, scanty precipitation, low vegetation cover, little input of biological residues, and high temperatures and strong evaporation conditions that accelerate the decomposition of organic matter, resulting in soil organic matter content that is generally lower than that in humid areas (Wikle, 2017). In addition, under the influence of topography, vegetation type and human activities, the distribution of organic matter is mostly concentrated in the surface layer (0–20 cm), and the content of deeper soils plummets; the content is higher in localized areas such as oasis farmland and riparian vegetation zones (Huang K. et al., 2024).

Although the content of soil organic matter in arid zones is low, it plays an irreplaceable role in maintaining the stability of fragile ecosystems (Neilson et al., 2017). An in-depth understanding of its dynamic mechanism is of great significance to the prevention and control of land degradation, carbon cycle research and sustainable development in the drylands.

2.3 Biological characteristics of arid zone soils

2.3.1 Soil microorganism

A wide variety of microorganisms inhabit the soils in arid regions, mainly including bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, etc. (Huang et al., 2019). In the desert soils of arid regions in northwestern China, bacteria are the most common and abundant microbial groups. Actinomycetes also account for a certain proportion in arid zone soils, and fungi are equally indispensable in the soil microbial community of arid regions, with common genera such as Aspergillus and Penicillium (Xue et al., 2020). The quantitative distribution of these microorganisms presents obvious characteristics. From the perspective of horizontal distribution, the number of soil microorganisms is relatively high in areas close to water sources or with good vegetation cover (Zhao et al., 2011). Taking the soil along the Tarim River in Xinjiang, China as an example, the number of soil microorganisms is several times higher than that in the desert hinterland far away from the river due to the relatively abundant water source and more luxuriant vegetation growth (Yang et al., 2025). This is because the water source and vegetation can provide microorganisms with more water, organic matter and other materials needed for growth and a suitable environment for survival (Yang et al., 2009). In the desert hinterland, due to the extreme arid climate, the soil moisture content is very low, nutrient scarcity, and the number of microorganisms is relatively scarce.

2.3.2 Soil animal

Arid zone soils are inhabited by a variety of unique animal groups that play an important role in the soil ecosystem (Lavelle et al., 2006). Earthworms are one of the more common soil animals, and despite the relatively harsh environmental conditions in arid zones, they can still be found in some areas close to water sources or with relatively high soil moisture (Pelosi et al., 2024). By burrowing and feeding in the soil, earthworms are able to improve soil structure and increase soil aeration and permeability (Lee and Foster, 1991). Their activity also promotes the decomposition and transformation of organic matter in the soil, mixing it with soil particles and increasing soil fertility (Gong et al., 2023).

Nematodes are widely distributed in the soils of arid zones and are found in a wide variety of species and in huge numbers (Song et al., 2017). Nematodes feeding on bacteria and fungi can regulate the structure and quantity of soil microbial communities and affect the nutrient cycling and transformation process in soil (Blanc et al., 2006). Nematodes that feed on plant roots, on the other hand, may have some impact on plant growth and, in some cases, may lead to damage to the plant root system, affecting the plant’s absorption of water and nutrients (Tariq et al., 2024).

Insects are also an important part of the soil fauna of the dry zone. For example, ants build complex nests in the soils of arid zones, and they alter the physical structure of the soil by transporting soil particles and organic matter (Zhou et al., 2023). Ants also collect and store food such as plant seeds, which affects plant distribution and reproduction to some extent (Li et al., 2014). In addition, larvae of some insects, such as beetle larvae, live in the soil and feed on decaying organic matter, which accelerates the decomposition process of organic matter and promotes the release of soil nutrients (Thakur et al., 2018).

2.3.3 Soil vegetation root system

The distribution of plant roots in the soil in arid zones presents unique characteristics of depth, breadth and density. In order to adapt to the arid environment, the root system of many arid zone plants has the characteristic of growing deeper. Take Alhagi sparsifolia as an example: its taproot can reach more than 10 m or even dozens of meters underground (Zeng et al., 2013). This is because the surface soil moisture in the arid zone is very easy to evaporate and dissipate, while the relative water content of the deep soil is high (Tomobe et al., 2023). Alhagi sparsifolia can reach near the groundwater table through its well-developed taproot to obtain a stable water source, thereby maintaining its own growth and survival (Zeng et al., 2013).

The breadth of distribution of plant root systems is also relatively impressive. In some dry grassland areas, the root systems of herbaceous plants can extend horizontally for several meters. For example, the root system of Stipa can cover a relatively large area in the horizontal direction, which helps it search for limited water and nutrients over a wider range (Nobis et al., 2022). This wide root distribution increases the contact area between the plant and the soil and improves the efficiency of uptake of scarce resources in the soil.

In terms of root density, the distribution of plant roots in the soil in the dry zone is not uniform (Wasaya et al., 2018). In the surface layer of the soil, the root density is relatively low due to the large variations in light, temperature and other conditions, as well as the relatively low water content. In the middle layer of the soil, root density usually increases because the soil in this layer is relatively stable and still contains a certain amount of water and nutrients, which is suitable for the growth and expansion of the root system. In deeper soils, although roots are able to reach them, root density gradually decreases again due to factors such as increased soil compactness and poorer aeration (McCoy, 2015).

3 Research on the application of organic fertilizers in arid zone soils

Organic fertilizer plays an important role in improving the soil in arid zones. Soils in arid zones generally have problems such as low organic matter content, poor water and fertilizer retention capacity, and weak microbial activity. Organic fertilizers can enhance the stability of soil aggregates, promote the formation of soil crumb structure, and make the soil much loose and porous (Chang et al., 2024). Such a soil structure can effectively improve the soil’s ability to retain water and fertilizer. Moreover, the decomposition of organic fertilizers can provide various nutrients including mass elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium as well as trace elements such as zinc, manganese and iron, which can provide comprehensive nutrients for the growth of plants and increase the effectiveness of soil nutrients and reduce the loss and waste of nutrients (Meirelles et al., 2023). In addition, organic fertilizers provide rich carbon and energy sources for soil microorganisms and enhance soil microbial activity (Asghar et al., 2024). The study of the effect of different organic fertilizers on arid zone soils can provide a scientific basis for the rational selection and application of organic fertilizers in the agricultural production of arid zones, optimize the fertilization program, improve the effect of fertilization, and achieve precision fertilization, so as to improve the quality of the soil, and enhance the resilience and sustainability of the soil. Rational application of organic fertilizers also helps to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers, reduce the cost of agricultural production, reduce the environmental pollution caused by excessive use of chemical fertilizers, protect the ecological environment, and realize the sustainable development of agriculture. In the case of water shortage in the arid zone, it can better utilize the limited water and nutrient resources, improve the utilization efficiency of water and nutrients, and safeguard the growth and yield of crops, which is of great practical significance for safeguarding food security and ecological security in the arid zone (Table 4).

Table 4

Table 4. Different types of organic fertilizers used in Arid region.

3.1 Organic fertilizer of plant origin

Organic fertilizers of plant origin are organic fertilizers made from plant residues, such as crop residues, cottonseed cake, forestry wastes, etc., after treatment, including compost, green manure, cake fertilizers, and straw returned to the field made from a mixture of straw, fallen leaves, etc., which are fermented (Li P. et al., 2021). These raw materials from a wide range of sources, will be made into organic fertilizers not only to achieve the recycling of resources, reduce the pressure of waste on the environment, but also to make organic fertilizers are rich in a variety of nutrients, effectively improve soil conditions, to achieve a multi-win (Duan et al., 2023). Generally, organic fertilizers are naturally produced and contain lots of carbon. Plant residues and livestock dung are usually used as organic fertilizers in agricultural production (Sun et al., 2022). Narrow-sense organic fertilizer specifically refers to organic fertilizers made from animal and plant residues or metabolic products through specialized hazard-free treatment (Uddin et al., 2025).

Green manure significantly improves water-holding capacity and erosion resistance of arid zone soils by increasing organic matter content and promoting agglomerate formation (Fauzan and Arafat, 2023). Green manure reduces the risk of wind and water erosion by consolidating the top soil through a dense root network. The organic matter and sugars released by its decay promote the formation of stable soil aggregates with particle size >0.25 mm, increasing porosity and the proportion of capillary water. Green manure treatment improves nutrient conversion efficiency and increases available nutrients by regulating the dissolution of phosphate and trace minerals (Pandey and Kumar, 2024). And green manure humus releases phosphorus and potassium effectiveness that lasts longer than chemical fertilizers, especially in climates with low mineralization rates in arid zones, which can extend the nutrient supply cycle. The humic acid in it can also complex salt ions and reduce the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR value), which increased the cotton emergence rate from 50% to 80% in saline soil in Xinjiang (Amlinger et al., 2003). In addition, green manure provided carbon source for indigenous microorganisms and promoted the proliferation of actinomycetes and nitrogen fixing bacteria (Delgado-Baquerizo et al., 2017). After green manure is incorporated into the soil, the number of actinomycetes increases by 3–5 times, accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and secreting auxinlike substances to stimulate the elongation of crop roots (Lyu et al., 2025).

In conclusion, plant-based organic fertilizers are a central tool for sustainable soil management in arid zones through physical structure improvement, biological nutrient activation and systemic resilience enhancement.

3.2 Animal-derived organic fertilizer

Animal organic fertilizers are made from animal residues, excreta, animal processing scraps and other raw materials, and are an important resource for soil improvement in arid zones, which play a significant role in soil restoration and sustainable agricultural development in arid zones by improving soil physicochemical properties, activating microbial communities, and enhancing nutrient cycling.

3.2.1 Livestock and poultry manure-based organic fertilizer

Soils in arid zones generally have loose structure and poor water retention capacity, and animal-based organic fertilizers can provide structural repair to them. Humus and organic colloids in livestock manure can promote the cementation of soil particles and the formation of stable aggregates (Tanvir et al., 2025). Moreover, the high content of organic carbon in livestock manure can reduce soil bulk weight while increasing infiltration rate. Humus in animal manure adsorbs water molecules to form a “hydration film”, which enhances the proportion of capillary water. In sandy soils in in Santa Maria, Brazil, rotting pig manure increases field capacity by around 34% and the plant available water by about 36% during the rainy season (Alves et al., 2024). Betaine and proline precursor substances in animal manure can enhance cellular osmoregulation. After applying rotted cow manure to corn fields in the Northwest, the relative water content of leaves increased by 10%–15%, and yield reduction was reduced by 15%–20%. Livestock manure is rich in total nitrogen (0.5%–2.5%), total phosphorus (0.3%–1.5%) and fast-acting potassium (1%–3%) (Wang et al., 2017). The nitrogen mineralization rate in chicken manure can reach 60%–70% under drought conditions, which is significantly higher than that of straw-based organic fertilizers (30%–40%) (Bhogal et al., 2016). Animal manure provides carbon source and energy for indigenous microorganisms. After cattle manure application, the number of actinomycetes and nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil increased by 3–5 times, accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and releasing growth hormone-like substances (Zhang et al., 2020). The earthworm manure is rich in beneficial microorganisms (such as Pseudomonas and Bacillus). The ACC deaminase secreted by them can alleviate drought stress. Under drought conditions, it can increase the root length of soybeans by 40%–108% and the synthesis amount of proline by 14.87%–42.69% (Dubey et al., 2024). Humic acid in earthworm manure reduces soil electrical conductivity (30%–50% decrease in EC) by complexing sodium ions. After application to salty cotton fields in Xinjiang, the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) decreased from 15 to 8, and the seedling emergence rate increased from 50% to 80% (Zhao et al., 2024). Long-term application of livestock manure can buffer soil pH fluctuations. Positioning tests at the Longchi pig farm in Sichuan showed that the application of pig manure for five consecutive years stabilized soil pH at 6.5–7.0 without secondary acidification (Zhao et al., 2024). Antagonistic bacteria (e.g., Bacillus subtilis) in vermicompost can inhibit soil-borne diseases. In the Loess Plateau trial, the incidence of tomato blight was reduced by 30%–60%. Livestock manure (especially chicken manure) contains high levels of Cu and Zn (300–500 mg/kg and 800–1,200 mg/kg, respectively), and in arid zones, due to weak leaching, long-term application should be controlled at ≤15 t/ha (Chen and Yu, 2019). It is recommended to combine with organic fertilizers of plant origin (e.g., straw) to dilute the concentration of heavy metals and reduce the ecological risk. Taking the Luochuan gully region of the Loess Plateau (loessal soil) as an example, the experiment used 27-year-old full-bearing Malus domestica Borkh. “Red Fuji” apple trees as test materials. The results showed that applying 15 kg of pig manure organic fertilizer per plant was the comprehensively optimal rate, which not only improved soil fertility in all soil layers, but also enhanced fruit yield and quality—compared with the chemical fertilizer-only treatment, the yield increased by 19.49% and the rate of high-quality fruits reached 86.7% (Ma et al., 2023).

3.2.2 Earthworm fertilizer

Vermicompost is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and trace elements (e.g., iron, zinc) and promotes mineral weathering through organic acids to increase nutrient effectiveness. For example, mineralized nitrogen content of earthworm manure-applied soils was elevated by 8% and 36.7% under low and high drought conditions, respectively, and quick-acting phosphorus was increased by 17.8% during high drought (Li J. et al., 2022). For example, tests on sandy soils in Helan County, Yinchuan City, Ningxia Province, showed that vermicomposting enhanced the productivity of infertile land (Wei et al., 2022).

Vermicompost can significantly improve the physical structure of soils in arid zones. Vermicompost is rich in humus, which binds with soil particles to form a stable aggregate structure and improves soil porosity (increase in total porosity) and aeration (Shan et al., 2017). Studies have also shown that 15 tons of vermicompost per hectare can significantly increase wheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend. Fiori and Paol.) yield (Slngh and Slngh, 2001). Similarly, high-dose vermicompost has also shown significant yield-increasing effects on other crops (such as rice, maize, etc.), and thus is considered an effective organic fertilizer that can improve yields in a variety of crops (Marlina et al., 2024).

Vermicompost can increase the number and activity of soil microorganisms, promote organic matter decomposition and humus enrichment, and thus enhance soil fertilizer supply capacity. For example, soil organic matter, alkaline dissolved nitrogen, quick-acting phosphorus and potassium contents were significantly higher after application of cow dung-based vermicompost (Shan et al., 2017).

3.2.3 Animal residue-based organic fertilizers

In addition to the aforementioned organic fertilizers derived from livestock manure and earthworm castings, there exist other types of animal-origin organic fertilizers that are produced from animal by-products or residual animal tissues. Fishmeal is a high-quality source of protein and is rich in minerals and vitamins. In addition, it improves soil structure in arid areas, increases soil fertility and promotes plant growth (Devi et al., 2024). Bone meal is an organic fertilizer made from animal bones calcined at high temperature and crushed. It contains a lot of phosphorus, calcium and other minerals, and its fertilizer effect is slow but lasting (Basílio et al., 2022). Blood meal is an organic fertilizer made of animal blood after drying and crushing. Blood meal is rich in protein and nitrogen, is a fast-acting organic nitrogen fertilizer. Its nutrients are relatively single and fast decomposition, so it needs to be used in conjunction with other fertilizers (De Jesus Egues Martins et al., 2021).

3.3 Microbial organic fertilizer

Microbial organic fertilizers are composites of specific functional microorganisms and major plant and animal residues as sources and organic materials that have been harmlessly treated and ripened. It contains a variety of functional bacteria beneficial to soil and plants, such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria, phosphorus-solubilizing bacteria, potassium-solubilizing bacteria, and Trichoderma harzianum, which have become important technical means for soil remediation and agricultural sustainable development in arid zones through mechanisms such as activating soil microbial activity, optimizing nutrient cycling, and enhancing stress resistance (Ma Y. et al., 2025).

Microbial-based organic fertilizers can significantly improve the efficiency of nutrient conversion in arid zone soils and reduce chemical fertilizer dependence. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as Rhizobium and Azospirillum, can convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium nitrogen. For example, studies have found that the application of Azotobacter-based nitrogen-fixing bacterial fertilizer in Sesamum indicum fields in arid zones can effectively reduce chemical fertilizer input (Shakeri et al., 2016). After treatment with selected nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the cultivation of Astragalus mongholicus, the rhizospheric endophytic bacteria family, Micromonosporaceae, Microbacteriaceae, and Prasinophyceae were found to increase significantly. These findings indicate their potentially important role in promoting plant growth and regulating secondary metabolism (Zhiyong et al., 2024).

3.4 Other organic fertilizers

In addition to the three types of organic fertilizers mentioned above, there are also organic fertilizers made from a variety of biomass wastes, such as sewage sludge, municipal waste and food waste. Biomass waste contains valuable nutrients, which can be well utilized with proper management, while saving space for waste disposal, achieving a win-win situation. Biofertilizers can also improve soil quality and contribute significantly to human health and safety, food quality and environmental protection.

Composting is one of the main processes in the stabilization of sewage sludge, and its association with cultivation in such residues has a great potential for the production of stabilized organic fertilizers and/or substrates for plant development (Cardoso et al., 2022).

4 Effect of organic fertilizers on soil properties in arid zones

Soils in arid zones generally have problems such as lack of organic matter, loose structure, weak water and fertilizer retention capacity, and salinization, which seriously constrain the sustainable development of agriculture (Table 5). Organic fertilizer, as an ecofriendly amendment, has become the core means of soil restoration in arid zones through multidimensional regulation of soil physical, chemical and biological properties (Duan et al., 2023). This paper combines recent research progress to systematically elucidate its action mechanism and effect (Figure 2).

Table 5

Table 5. Effects of different fertilization treatments on soil health parameters in arid regions.

Figure 2

Figure 2. The effects of different organic fertilizers on soil properties.

4.1 Impact on soil physical properties

The application of organic fertilizers can significantly improve the physical characteristics of dryland soils. For example, organic fertilizer contains a large amount of organic matter, which is decomposed and transformed by microorganisms in the soil to form humus. In addition, in arid zones, moisture is an important constraint on soil texture and plant growth. The results showed that compared with chemical fertilizers, organic fertilizers significantly increased the soil water storage capacity of the 0–160 cm soil layer during the whole growth period of oilseed flax and significantly reduced water consumption (Xu et al., 2023).Organic fertilizer increases the water retention of the soil, which enables the soil to maintain a certain level of water content during drought periods, maintains the moist state of soil particles, reduces the dry cracking and crusting phenomenon of the soil due to the lack of water, and is conducive to the maintenance of good texture and structure of the soil.

The agglomerate structure and increased porosity formed by organic fertilizers result in increased aeration pores in the soil and freer access of air to the soil interior (Uddin et al., 2025). Good pore structure and aggregate arrangement provide channels for water infiltration. This allows precipitation or irrigation water to penetrate deeper into the soil more quickly, thereby reducing surface runoff and improving water use efficiency (Peng et al., 2023). These characteristics are particularly critical in arid soils, where they help prevent surface water accumulation, thereby mitigating the risks of soil erosion and compaction.

After organic fertilizer is applied to the soil, it will gradually decompose in the soil. In the decomposition process, organic fertilizer will occupy a certain space, and when these organic substances are decomposed by microorganisms, many pores will be left behind. At the same time, the organic components in organic fertilizer can promote the formation of soil aggregates, and a large number of pores will be formed between the aggregates. The increase of these pores allows better circulation and storage of air and water in the soil, thus reducing the soil’s bulk density (Li et al., 2021a; Hanke et al., 2024).

4.2 Effects on soil chemical properties

Organic fertilizers are rich in organic carbon, which can increase the carbon to nitrogen ratio of the soil and promote the growth and reproduction of soil microorganisms, thereby improving the chemical properties of the soil (Huang W. et al., 2024). For instance, long-term organic fertilizer application can markedly elevate soil labile organic carbon levels and soil enzyme activities, as well as enhance the efficiency of soil nutrient cycling (Huang et al., 2023).

Organic fertilizers contain a variety of organic compounds that produce a number of acids when they decompose in the soil. For the more alkaline arid zone soils, this helps to alleviate the alkalinity of the soil, bringing it closer to neutrality and increasing the effectiveness of nutrients in the soil (Huang and Chen, 2009). In alkaline soils, components such as organic acids in organic fertilizers can react with alkaline ions (e.g., carbonate ions, bicarbonate ions) in the soil, consuming these alkaline ions.

Organic fertilizers can improve soil structure, increase soil porosity, and improve water permeability and air permeability of the soil. Under irrigation or rainfall conditions, water is more likely to penetrate and flow in the soil, thus promoting the downward leaching of salts in the soil with water and reducing the accumulation of salts in the surface soil. It has strong water-retaining capacity, which can increase soil water-holding capacity and facilitate the growth of plant roots in a soil environment with relatively low salt content. In addition, organic fertilizers indirectly improve plant growth and salt tolerance by optimizing the soil environment and promoting microbial activity. Healthy plants can better absorb and utilize soil water and nutrients, thereby alleviating salt stress on plants to a certain extent.

Organic fertilizers are rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other large elements. For example, animal manure-type organic fertilizers are rich in nitrogen, and cake fertilizers are high in nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. The application of organic fertilizer in the soil of the arid zone can directly supplement the soil with these large elements, alleviate the loss of nutrients due to drought and the problem of insufficient nutrient content in the soil itself, and meet the demand for large elements for plant growth. In addition to large elements, organic fertilizer also contains calcium, magnesium, sulfur and other medium elements, as well as iron, zinc, manganese, copper and other trace elements. These elements play an important role in the normal growth and development of plants and the regulation of physiological functions (Dhaliwal et al., 2024). In a drought environment, the effectiveness of these medium and trace elements in the soil may be reduced, and the application of organic fertilizer can increase their content and improve the comprehensiveness and balance of soil nutrients. Organic fertilizer can promote the formation of soil aggregates, increase soil porosity, and improve soil aeration and water permeability. This facilitates the activity of microorganisms in the soil and the growth of the root system, making it easier for the nutrients in the soil to be decomposed by microorganisms and transformed into forms that can be absorbed by plants, and at the same time facilitates the contact and absorption of the nutrients by the plant root system, thus improving the effectiveness of the nutrients.

4.3 Impact on soil biological properties

Organic fertilizers can significantly improve the biological activity of soils in arid zones, form a benign soil ecosystem, facilitate the cycling and transformation of soil nutrients, improve soil fertility, promote plant growth, and improve the stability and adaptability of ecosystems in arid zones. Organic fertilizers are rich in various organic substances and nutrients, providing soil microorganisms with abundant carbon, nitrogen and other nutrients needed for growth (Abd El-Azeim et al., 2020). Soils in arid zones tend to be relatively infertile, and the application of organic fertilizers can greatly improve the living environment of microorganisms, promote the growth and reproduction of various microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes, so that the number of soil microorganisms can be significantly increased (Bebber and Richards, 2022). Analysis indicated that BOF treatment (bacteria + organic fertilizer) significantly increased the relative abundance of Actinomycetes (+15.8%) and Proteobacteria (+13.3%) at the phylum level (Chen et al., 2024).

Organic substances and nutrients in organic fertilizers can induce the production of certain enzymes in the soil. For example, organic fertilizers rich in nitrogen and phosphorus can stimulate microorganisms to secrete urease, phosphatase, etc. These enzymes play an important role in the decomposition and transformation of organic nitrogen and organic phosphorus in the soil, and can convert nitrogen and phosphorus in the organic state into the inorganic state that can be absorbed by the plant, thus im-proving the effectiveness of soil nutrients (Fu et al., 2024). Organic fertilizer has a certain buffering effect, can stabilize the soil pH and humidity and other environmental conditions, to reduce the drought and other factors caused by drastic changes in the soil environment on the inhibition of soil enzyme activity or damage, so that the soil enzymes can play a role in a more suitable environment, to maintain a high level of activity.

Organic fertilizers provide rich food resources for soil animals (Jiang et al., 2015). For example, soil animals such as earthworms feed on the organic matter in organic fertilizers, further decomposing and transforming the organic fertilizers through the process of feeding and digestion, while their excretions improve the soil structure and nutrient status (Tejada et al., 2017). Some small insects and mites are also active in organic fertilizer-rich soils, and their activities contribute to soil aeration and material cycling (Betancur Corredor et al., 2023). Organic fertilizers improve the physical structure of the soil, making it looser and more porous, providing better space for soil animals to inhabit and move around. In arid zones, this loose soil structure is conducive to soil animals escaping drought stress, maintaining a certain level of water and humidity, and promoting their survival and reproduction in the soil, thereby enhancing the biological activity of the soil (Zhou et al., 2022).

5 Mechanism of action of organic fertilizers on arid zone soils

5.1 Improvement of soil spatial structure to enhance water retention and erosion resistance

Organic fertilizers are rich in organic matter and microorganisms that significantly improve the physical properties of the soil (Cheng et al., 2023). The decomposition process of organic matter results in the formation of an agglomerate structure, which increases soil porosity and improves soil aeration and permeability (Chen et al., 2022). The formation of the agglomerate structure helps to reduce soil compactness and increases soil porosity by 38%, which enhances water storage capacity (Hammad et al., 2020). In addition, organic fertilizers improve soil chemistry and promote slow release of nutrients by increasing the organic carbon content of the soil (Pan et al., 2025). Studies have shown that organic fertilizers increase the organic carbon content in the soil by 57%, thereby enhancing the availability of nutrients in the soil (Li et al., 2024).

The organic matter in organic fertilizers is highly absorbent and is able to absorb and store more water (Lal, 2020). For example, incompletely decomposed organic matter (e.g., sugar compounds, cellulose, etc.) is able to form capillary water and reduce water evaporation, thereby improving the water-holding capacity of the soil. In addition, organic fertilizers can further improve soil water retention by increasing microbial activity in the soil and promoting the formation of secondary pores (Bebber and Richards, 2022; Aguilar Paredes et al., 2023).

Organic fertilizers can significantly reduce soil erosion by improving soil structure and increasing organic matter content (Verma et al., 2024). Decomposition products of organic matter (e.g., humus) can act as soil binders, stabilizing soil particles and reducing erosion. Organic fertilizers promote the formation of soil aggregates through the cementing effect of humus. The study showed that applying organic fertilizer continuously for 5 years can increase the proportion of soil aggregates with particle size greater than 2 mm from 25% to 40%, and the porosity can be enhanced by 12% (Zhao et al., 2018). In addition, organic fertilizers can increase soil porosity and aggregate structure. They enhance the stability between soil particles, thereby stabilizing the soil structure (Stott et al., 2018). This stabilizes the soil structure. It reduces particle loss, slows runoff speed, and lowers erosion risk (Blanco-Canqui et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2024).

Organic fertilizers can improve soil permeability and water permeability, providing a good environment for the development of plant roots (Yue et al., 2023). This helps plant roots obtain sufficient oxygen for normal respiration, promotes root growth and microbial activity, and thereby further improves soil structure. Well-developed roots help plants better absorb water from deep soil, thus enhancing water use efficiency (Zhao et al., 2019).

In terms of synergy with water conservation and irrigation: organic fertilizers themselves can improve soil water retention capacity. In protected cultivation, supporting plastic film or straw mulching can simultaneously achieve water conservation and slow release of nutrients; regarding the adaptability of irrigation technologies, the subsurface drip irrigation mode in Xinjiang cotton fields is suitable for liquid organic fertilizers, and it is recommended to topdress 8 times according to the growth period (emergence water accounts for 2%, seedling stage 3%, budding stage to full boll stage 85%), with a total amount of water and fertilizer of 600 mL/pot in pot experiments; the drip irrigation quota for protected tomatoes is approximately 94 m³/hm²; flood irrigation is suitable for maize in saline-alkali soils. It is worth noting that liquid organic fertilizers are more compatible with water-fertilizer integration technology, featuring no clogging and precise topdressing according to crop growth periods, and perform prominently in drip irrigation scenarios. Compared with traditional solid organic fertilizers, they have better effects in improving nutrient use efficiency, soil improvement and yield increase, and also have the characteristics of environmental friendliness and low transportation costs.

5.2 Optimizing soil properties to alleviate salinization and acidification

Organic fertilizers can optimize soil properties; their rational application can alleviate salinization or acidification in arid region soils and balance soil nutrients. Organic fertilizers produce organic acids through decomposition, which can neutralize alkaline substances in the soil and reduce soil pH, thus alleviating salinization problems. For example, organic acids are common products of the decomposition process of organic fertilizers, including citric acid, malic acid and oxalic acid (Li et al., 2008). These organic acids can have a neutralization reaction with the alkaline substances in the soil, thus lowering the pH value of the soil and making it more acidic. For example, organic fertilizer can significantly reduce the total salt content in the soil by 53.86% during the cotton growth period, and also improve the degree of salinization (Xia et al., 2025). Furthermore, Organic colloids in organic fertilizers carry a large number of negative charges. They can adsorb cations in the soil, such as sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, and magnesium ions. Through ion exchange, organic fertilizers can adsorb some harmful salt ions (e.g., sodium ions) in the soil solution onto the colloid surface. This reduces the salt concentration in the soil solution (Xiao et al., 2022). At the same time, beneficial ions (e.g., calcium ions) adsorbed on the colloid surface can exchange with other salt ions in the soil. This makes the salt composition in the soil more reasonable and reduces salt damage to plants (Irin and Hasanuzzaman, 2024). Additionally, organic fertilizer application can increase soil organic matter content, which not only enhances the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soil but also improves soil permeability and water use efficiency. Under drought conditions, evaporation of water in the soil is one of the main causes of salt surface aggregation. Organic fertilizer maintains the water in the soil and reduces the evaporation of water, thus reducing the chance of salts rising to the soil surface with water, reducing the accumulation of salts in the soil surface, and facilitating the growth of plant roots in a relatively low-salt soil environment (Murphy, 2015).

The decomposition process of organic fertilizers will also produce some alkaline substances. For example, the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter produces ammonia, which is further converted into ammonium ions in the soil, making the soil locally alkaline (Chu et al., 2025). In addition, the release of some mineral elements such as calcium and magnesium may also increase the pH value of the soil (Dhaliwal et al., 2024). In acidic dry zone soils, these alkaline substances can neutralize soil acidity and play a role in regulating soil pH. In addition, the release of some mineral elements such as calcium and magnesium may also increase the pH value of the soil (Dhaliwal et al., 2024).

5.3 Activates soil biological activity and accelerates nutrient cycling

Humic acid in organic fertilizers provides rich nutrients for soil microorganisms, thus promoting their growth and reproduction (Jin et al., 2024). This not only augments the abundance of soil microorganisms but also ameliorates soil physicochemical properties–such as the development of soil aggregate structure–and consequently enhances soil fertility and nutrient use efficiency (Li, 2020; Li Q. et al., 2022).

Organic substances in organic fertilizers stimulate the activity of soil microorganisms, accelerating the decomposition and release of nutrients. Organic fertilizer provides rich energy and nutrients for soil microorganisms and promotes a large number of microbial reproduction and activity (Lee et al., 2023). Microorganisms in the process of decomposition of organic fertilizers, will secrete a variety of enzymes and metabolites, these substances can accelerate the conversion of organic nutrients in the soil to inorganic nutrients, for example, the conversion of organic nitrogen to ammonium nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen, the conversion of organic phosphorus to inorganic phosphorus, which improves the effectiveness of the soil nutrients for plant absorption and utilization (Mildaryani and Saufina, 2024). Organic colloids in organic fertilizers have a large specific surface area and a large number of negative charges, which can adsorb cations in the soil, such as ammonium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, magnesium ions, etc., to increase the soil’s cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Abd El-Azeim et al., 2020).The increase in CEC means that the soil can adsorb and conserve more nutrient ions, reduce their loss during irrigation or rainfall, and improve the soil’s ability to retain nutrients, so that nutrients can continue to be used in the soil for plant uptake. This increases the soil’s ability to retain nutrients and keeps them available to plants in the soil. The organic matter in organic fertilizers can combine with mineral particles in the soil to form an organic-inorganic complex. This complex encapsulates the nutrients, reduces the reaction and fixation of the nutrients with other substances in the soil, and also reduces the risk of leaching of the nutrients, thus conserving the nutrients and helping to maintain the long-term effectiveness of the soil nutrients. Organic fertilizer can improve the soil nutrient status in arid zones through a variety of ways, improve soil fertility, provide a good nutrient environment for plant growth, and promote the sustainable development of agriculture in arid zones (Duan et al., 2023). However, in practical application, according to the specific conditions of the soil and plant needs in arid zones, organic fertilizers should be reasonably selected and applied to give full play to their positive effects on soil nutrients. In addition, organic fertilizers can enhance nutrient absorption and utilization efficiency by improving the microbial community structure of the soil (Sharma et al., 2024).

Organic fertilizers can optimize nutrient cycling by providing key nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. For example, microorganisms in bio-organic fertilizers (e.g., Trichoderma spp.) can improve soil properties, enhance soil adsorption capacity, and promote air and drainage circulation, thereby stabilizing soil temperatures and promoting crop growth (Wang et al., 2023a).

The combined use of organic fertilizers and biofertilizers can further activate soil biological activity (Wang et al., 2023b). Beneficial microorganisms in biofertilizers can play a catalytic role in the process of plant metabolism, promote the formation of the granular structure, improve the internal void space of the soil, and thus enhance the biological activity and nutrient release capacity of the soil (Ding et al., 2024). Some organic substances produced by microorganisms during their metabolic processes can also undergo complexation or chelation reactions with salts in the soil, reducing the activity and availability of salts and alleviating the toxic effects of salts on plants. In addition, some microorganisms have the ability to transform and immobilize salts; for example, certain bacteria can reduce sulfate in the soil to sulfide, thereby decreasing the content of sulfate ions in the soil and reducing the accumulation of sulfate-based salts (Wang et al., 2023a).

Organic fertilizers can optimize nutrient cycling by providing key nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. For example, in semi-arid regions, the application of organic fertilizers can significantly increase the contents of total nitrogen, organic carbon, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and other nutrients in the soil, thereby promoting the growth of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Duan et al., 2023). In addition, organic fertilizers can enhance nutrient absorption and utilization efficiency by improving the microbial community structure of the soil (Sharma et al., 2024). Carbohydrates in organic fertilizers provide a source of energy for microorganisms and promote their population growth by 200%–500%. An active microbial community accelerates the mineralization of organic matter, which in turn increases the efficiency of nutrient turnover (Hammad et al., 2020). Enhanced activity of microorganisms helps to decompose organic matter in the soil and release more nutrients for crop uptake. In addition, the application of microbial fertilizers can further improve the soil physicochemical properties and increase the number and diversity of microorganisms in the soil (Sharma et al., 2024). In terms of application rate and ratio: the mode of reduced chemical fertilizer combined with organic fertilizer is recommended. For winter wheat, the ratio of 30% nitrogen reduction in chemical fertilizer +40% organic nitrogen (commercial chicken manure) is appropriate, and maize can adopt 25%–100% organic nitrogen to replace chemical nitrogen; when planting sweet sorghum in yellow cinnamon soil, the suitable application rate of sole sheep manure is 22.50 t/hm².

5.4 Enhance crop resilience and optimize water and nutrient uses

Organic fertilizers are rich in key nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, which can significantly increase the nutrient content and fertility level of the soil (Zhang J. et al., 2025). The soil organic carbon, available phosphorus, available potassium, and nitrate nitrogen under high level fertilizer application were increased by an average of 32.37%, 21.85%, 18.70%, and 36.97%, respectively (Ren et al., 2024). Meanwhile, a study conducted in the Oued Souf region, located in the arid zone of Algeria, has shown that organic fertilizer made from pure poultry manure can alleviate soil salinization and nutrient deficiency stress, leading to a significant increase in potato yield (36 tons per hectare) (Mancer et al., 2024).

Physiologically active components such as flavonoids and phenolic acids contained in organic fertilizers can enhance the crop’s adaptive ability to adversity by regulating the balance of endogenous plant hormones and antioxidant system (Omar et al., 2012; Vicente and Boscaiu, 2018). Under drought stress, the accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) and ascorbic acid (Ascorbic Acid) induced by organic fertilizers significantly improves cellular osmoregulation (Yu et al., 2024). Under low temperature or saline stress, humic acid in organic fertilizer can activate the antioxidant enzyme activities such as SOD and POD in plants, and reduce the damage of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to cell membranes (Ali et al., 2019; Li Y. et al., 2021).

Organic fertilizer creates a more stable growing environment for crops by optimizing soil physical and chemical properties. Organic matter promotes the formation of micro-agglomerates, increasing soil porosity by 15%–30% and enhancing the efficiency of water absorption by the root system (Wen et al., 2024). Decomposed organic fertilizer can enhance the water-holding capacity of sandy soils by 50% and increase the water infiltration rate of clayey soils by threefold, thereby mitigating crop water stress during the dry season (Kandra et al., 2024). Functional flora in organic fertilizers (e.g., phosphorus solubilizing bacteria, nitrogen fixing bacteria) can secrete iron carriers and ACC deaminase to alleviate ionic toxicity in saline soils (Orozco et al., 2020; Bai et al., 2024). Plant root exudates by plant roots can also influence the soil community composition, promoting the proliferation of beneficial microorganisms and fostering a resilient soil-plant-microbe ecosystem.

In agricultural production, the selection of organic fertilizer types, control of application rates, ratio with chemical fertilizers, and synergistic coordination with water conservation measures and irrigation technologies are key factors for achieving sustainable agricultural development. Literature summaries indicate that organic fertilizer application has significant effects on soil improvement and crop growth, but there exists specificity in the adaptability between soil types and crop types. Specifically, regarding the selection of organic fertilizer types: sheep manure organic fertilizer performs best in promoting crop growth and soil improvement due to minimal nutrient loss during composting; bio-organic fertilizer is suitable for chemical fertilizer reduction scenarios in alpine regions; when the acidic organic fertilizer extract is applied in cotton fields, compared with liquid organic fertilizers containing amino acids and humic acids, it is more conducive to yield increase and soil improvement; bio-organic fertilizer is the preferred fertilizer for maize cultivation in saline-alkali soils.

5.5 Long-term eco-efficiency and sustainable management

Compared to chemical fertilizers, organic fertilizer is an environmentally friendly and sustainable fertilizer (Tarolli et al., 2024). It not only improves soil quality, but also reduces negative impacts on the environment. Long-term application of organic fertilizers can continuously improve soil structure and fertility, providing stable production conditions for agricultural development in arid zones (Cui et al., 2023). Repeated application of organic fertilizers can significantly improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil (Liu J. et al., 2021). At the same time, soil salinity, pH and nutrient content should be monitored regularly to assess the improvement effect and adjust the application strategy in a timely manner (Figure 3).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Effect of organic fertilizers on growth, physiological and biochemical functioning of plants under drought stress conditions.

6 Conclusions and prospects

The application of organic fertilizers improves soil organic matter, macro-aggregates, enzymatic activities, and microbial activities in arid regions, thereby promoting crop growth and yield. Further, the use of organic fertilizers has also been reported to enhance stress tolerance in plants. The application of organic fertilizers substantially improves water uptake by crop roots, water use efficiency, nutrient uptake, and osmolyte accumulation, while enhancing crop antioxidant activity and related gene expression, thus providing better resistance against these stresses. In agricultural production, the selection of organic fertilizer types, application rates, ratio with chemical fertilizers, water retention measures, and combination with irrigation technologies are key factors for achieving sustainable agricultural development. Through the summary of existing literature, it is found that organic fertilizer application has significant effects on soil improvement and crop growth, showing specificity in the adaptation between soil types and crop types.

However, current research still has critical gaps to address. First, the mechanisms underlying organic fertilizers’ performance under high-temperature, drought, and saline-alkali stresses remain poorly characterized; future studies should focus on elucidating their functional effects and regulatory mechanisms specifically in dry-heat stress contexts. Second, while co-application of organic and chemical fertilizers modulates soil properties, reshapes soil chemical reactions and plant nutrient uptake dynamics, and thereby regulates crop productivity, validation of these effects across a broader spectrum of climatic and edaphic conditions is needed to strengthen generalizability. Third, given the heterogeneity of climate, soil, and crop types in arid regions, the impacts of organic fertilizer application on soil nutrient status and utilization efficiency are inconsistent; scenario-specific optimization of application regimes is thus imperative. Fourth, the bulkiness and logistical challenges of organic fertilizers call for targeted supply chain strategies to ensure stable, continuous access. Fifth, organic fertilizers may yield lower agronomic outputs compared to conventional mineral fertilizer management; future work should quantify trade-offs between soil synthetic nitrogen inputs, crop yield-quality attributes, and economic viability—with integrated water-fertilizer application technologies emerging as a promising mitigation approach. Sixth, to underpin agricultural ecosystem sustainability, farmer education on soil-based selection of organic fertilizers and tailored application schemes is urgently required. Finally, untreated organic amendments (e.g., raw farmyard manure, farmer-produced compost) may contain toxic contaminants, necessitating strict safety safeguards during their deployment.

Author contributions

QL: Writing – review and editing, Writing – original draft, Software, Conceptualization. LY: Methodology, Writing – review and editing. LM: Validation, Writing – review and editing. YZ: Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing. DW: Validation, Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by Open Fund Project of the Key Laboratory of Saline-Alkali Soil Improvement and Utilization (Saline-Alkali Land in Arid and Semi-Arid regions) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (YJDKFJJ202302), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32360547), Xin-jiang Production and Construction Corps Science and Technology Plan Project (2024ZD106) and the “Tianchi Talents” Introduction Program for Young Doctors of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (524316002).

Acknowledgements

Acknowledgement for the data support from “Soil SubCenter, National Earth System Science Data Center, National Science and Technology Infrastructure of China (http://soil.geodata.cn)” (Kong).

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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