Steven Stalin Ramos-Romero
Hernán Rigoberto Benavides-Rosales2- 1Facultad de Industrias Agropecuarias y Ciencias Ambientales, Carrera de Agropecuaria; Universidad Politécnica Estatal del Carchi (UPEC), Carchi, Ecuador
- 2Facultad de Industrias Agropecuarias y Ciencias Ambientales, Carrera de Agropecuaria, Universidad Politécnica Estatal del Carchi (UPEC), Carchi, Ecuador
This systematic review examines recent advances in modelling the transport of heavy metals in agricultural soils and their potential leaching into groundwater. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, peer-reviewed studies published between 2020 and 2025 were systematically identified and analysed to assess the physicochemical, hydrological, and geochemical processes governing the mobility of key contaminants, including cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni). The reviewed evidence indicates that metal transport is primarily controlled by soil properties such as pH, texture, organic matter content, and redox conditions, in combination with hydrodynamic drivers related to irrigation practices, extreme rainfall events, and climatic variability. Numerical and reactive transport models, particularly HYDRUS-1D and PHREEQC, were the most frequently applied tools for simulating vertical migration, breakthrough behaviour, and long-term contamination scenarios. The results further show that intensive agricultural management, the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation, and proximity to mining or industrial sources significantly increase the mobile fraction of heavy metals, thereby enhancing the risk of contaminant transfer into shallow aquifers. Extreme hydrometeorological events were found to accelerate metal redistribution even in soils previously considered geochemically stable. Overall, this review highlights the need for integrated, multi-scale modelling approaches that combine experimental data, advanced geochemical analysis, and numerical simulations. Such approaches are essential to improve predictive accuracy and to support the development of sustainable soil and groundwater management strategies under increasing environmental and climatic pressures.
1 Introduction
Groundwater contamination by heavy metals has emerged as one of the most critical global environmental challenges (Hameed et al., 2020), largely due to the persistence, toxicity, and high mobility of these elements within soil–water systems (Rajawat et al., 2025). Activities such as mining, metal smelting, intensive agrochemical use, and inadequate industrial waste management have contributed to the accumulation of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), and copper (Cu) in agricultural soils and aquifers (Thabethe et al., 2025). The presence of these contaminants and their potential for bioaccumulation and biomagnification poses a direct threat to ecosystems and human health, particularly in agricultural regions where groundwater serves as the primary source for drinking water, irrigation, and industrial use (Du et al., 2020).
Over recent decades, the development of models designed to elucidate heavy metal transport has advanced toward a more detailed interpretation of the processes regulating their distribution, mobility, and transformation in the subsurface (Zheng et al., 2020). The integration of physicochemical, hydrogeochemical, and numerical models (Klimov et al., 2024), along with the increasing incorporation of artificial intelligence-based methods (Wang Q. et al., 2024), has enhanced the capacity to simulate the interplay between soil properties, hydrological conditions, climatic variability, and the geochemical behaviour of contaminants. These tools are essential for projecting contamination scenarios, assessing environmental risks, establishing management thresholds, and informing public policies related to water security and sustainable natural resource governance (Van Thang et al., 2022).
Traditional physicochemical models such as adsorption isotherms, kinetic approximations, and equilibrium models have been instrumental in characterizing soil metal interactions at the microscopic scale (Zhao et al., 2022). The relevance of these processes is evident in countries that have experienced severe contamination episodes. In Malaysia, groundwater degradation is largely linked to mining activities and poor waste management practices; moreover, high rainfall and acidic soils intensify metal mobility (Wong et al., 2024). Similarly, in China, elevated concentrations of Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn, As, and F have been reported in groundwater, attributable to both anthropogenic and natural sources, while the country’s complex hydrogeological configuration has limited the effectiveness of mitigation efforts (Adnan et al., 2025). In areas with abandoned mines and smelters, additional challenges persist due to the heterogeneity of contaminants and the high bio accessibility associated with colloids and dissolved organic matter (Jin et al., 2023).
Reactive transport models implemented through platforms such as FEFLOW and MODFLOW-RT3D have become robust tools for analysing the physicochemical and biological processes that govern contaminant migration in the subsurface (Fang et al., 2024). These models allow the simulation of mechanisms such as advection, dispersion, diffusion, sorption, precipitation, coprecipitation, and redox reactions, offering an integrated representation of metal evolution (Khan et al., 2023). In recent years, their utility has extended beyond predicting flow paths and transport patterns to evaluating environmental management strategies and emergency planning (Adnan et al., 2025).
Among the most advanced tools is FEFLOW, a finite-element-based model that provides substantial advantages over more conventional approaches (Trefry and Muffels, 2007), making it well-suited for mining areas, tailings deposits, and highly heterogeneous hydrogeological systems (Fang et al., 2024). Advances in three-dimensional simulations and coupling with external geochemical modules have considerably expanded its applicability in large-scale studies.
Contamination associated with abandoned mining zones remains one of the main sources of heavy metals entering the subsurface (Palanivel and Victor, 2020). Phenomena such as acid drainage and leaching pose direct threats to groundwater quality, affecting ecosystems, agricultural soils, and surface water bodies (Shi et al., 2025). The heterogeneous mineralogy of waste materials, presence of metal sulphides, and continuous infiltration of rainfall create conditions that promote metal release and mobility (St-Arnault et al., 2020). However, despite technological advances in monitoring and artificial intelligence-based techniques, persistent limitations remain due to insufficient field data and weak integration between monitoring and modelling platforms for assessing risks related to emerging contaminants and distinct geochemical fractions (Tang et al., 2025; Liang et al., 2022).
Given the complexity of metal transport in agricultural environments and the need to strengthen sustainable water-resource management, it is essential to critically review recent advances in modelling, alongside their limitations, emerging trends, and applications in environmentally vulnerable regions (Alamanos et al., 2020). Such reviews support strategies that integrate local conditions, regional challenges, and global demands linked to risk mitigation (Li et al., 2024).
Therefore, the present article aims to provide a comprehensive and critical systematic review of advances in modelling the transport of heavy metals in agricultural soils and their subsequent leaching into aquifers. It also examines the main physicochemical, numerical, and hydrogeochemical models, as well as innovations based on artificial intelligence, evaluating their applicability in mining, agricultural, and hydrogeologic ally vulnerable regions.
2 Methodology
A systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines with the aim of identifying recent advances in the modelling of heavy metal transport and leaching in agricultural soils. The literature search was performed primarily in the Scopus database to ensure methodological rigor, transparency, and reproducibility throughout all stages of the review process (Page et al., 2021). Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to achieve broad thematic coverage and a balanced analysis of the selected studies Pineda Gea et al. (2023).
2.1 Research questions
This review was structured around four interrelated research questions aligned with the overall objectives of the study. The first aimed to identify the most recent advances in the modelling of heavy metal transport and leaching in agricultural soils, incorporating diverse theoretical perspectives and analytical tools. The second sought to examine the environmental and soil-related factors that influence the mobility and bioaccumulation of these contaminants, with the goal of identifying the elements exerting the greatest effect on their dispersion within soils.
The third question evaluated the performance of predictive models and mitigation strategies described in the literature, to assess their applicability in different agricultural scenarios. Lastly, the fourth question focused on identifying existing research gaps, including methodological limitations, data availability, and challenges associated with integrating multidisciplinary approaches. Together, these four perspectives allowed for the construction of a coherent analytical framework for comprehensively examining scientific and technological advances related to heavy metal transport in agricultural soils.
2.2 Information sources and search strategy
The scientific literature search was conducted primarily in the Scopus database, selected for its extensive coverage of peer-reviewed publications in environmental sciences, agronomy, and engineering. To ensure the inclusion of the most recent and relevant evidence, only studies published between 2020 and 2025 were considered.
The temporal restriction to studies published between 2020 and 2025 was applied in order to capture the most recent advances in numerical modelling, reactive transport simulation, hydrogeochemical coupling, and data-driven approaches, as well as to reflect the increasing influence of climate variability and extreme hydrometeorological events on heavy-metal mobility, which have substantially reshaped current understanding of soil groundwater contamination dynamics.
The search strategy was designed to maximize both sensitivity and precision by combining controlled keywords and free-text terms related to heavy metals, soil processes, and contaminant transport. The logical structure of the Boolean search strategy applied in the Scopus database is illustrated in Figure 1, which summarizes the thematic blocks and their interconnections used for study identification. The final search string incorporated the following terms and Boolean operators:
Figure 1. Boolean search strategy used to identify relevant studies in the Scopus database.
Additional filters were applied to restrict results to peer-reviewed journal articles, excluding grey literature such as these, conference proceedings, editorials, and technical reports. Only publications written in English or Spanish were included. This structured approach ensured transparency, reproducibility, and thematic relevance in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines.
2.3 Eligibility criteria
Inclusion criteria were established to ensure the selection of relevant and methodologically robust studies examining the modelling of heavy metal transport and leaching in agricultural soils Zhao et al. (2022). Studies were included if they met the following conditions:
i. Presented original research, systematic reviews, or doctrinal analyses on the mobility, transport, or mitigation of heavy metals in agricultural soils.
ii. Explicitly addressed mathematical models, simulations, or contaminant mitigation strategies.
iii. Were published between 2020 and 2025 to reflect the most recent advances.
iv. Covered at least one thematic dimension: modelling, environmental impact, or mitigation strategies.
Were published in peer-reviewed journals and written in English or Spanish.
2.4 Exclusion criteria
Rigorous exclusion criteria were applied to maintain thematic clarity and methodological consistency (Mishra and Mishra, 2023). Studies were excluded if they met any of the following conditions:
i. Did not directly address the modelling or transport of heavy metals in agricultural soils.
ii. We’re not academic or peer-reviewed, including theses, editorials, reports, or opinion pieces.
iii. Focused on contaminants or soil systems unrelated to agricultural contexts or heavy metals.
iv. Were published prior to 2020.
The application of these clearly defined criteria established strict parameters that enhanced the transparency, reproducibility, and methodological robustness of the systematic review (Table 1).
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.
2.5 Selection process
The initial search in Scopus retrieved 254 records, which were exported to the reference manager Mendeley for organization and screening. During the automated filtering process, three duplicate documents were identified and removed, yielding a total of 251 unique studies for the preliminary screening phase. Titles and abstracts were then examined according to the predefined eligibility criteria, resulting in the exclusion of 194 studies that did not meet the required thematic relevance. Consequently, 60 articles proceeded to full-text review.
In the final assessment, 38 additional studies were excluded for the following reasons: absence of modelling of heavy metal transport (n = 15); lack of focus on agricultural soils (n = 10); failure to address leaching or downward migration toward groundwater (n = 8); insufficient methodological information (n = 6). Ultimately, 21 studies fully met the thematic, methodological, and scientific quality criteria and were included in the final synthesis, in strict accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. The overall selection process is summarized in Figure 2.
Figure 2. PRISMA 2020 flow diagram of the study selection.
2.6 Data extraction and synthesis
Data extraction was conducted using a standardized template designed to ensure uniformity and accuracy in recording information from all included studies Mishra and Mishra, (2023). For each article, key variables were collected, including author(s), year of publication, study objective, type of metal analysed, simulation approach employed (hydrological, numerical, or reactive), main findings, and reported limitations. This structure enabled systematic comparisons across diverse investigations (Shrivastava and Mishra, 2025). The organized dataset facilitated a synthesis aligned with the objectives of the review and supported a structured response to the research questions posed.
2.7 Methodological quality assessment
To ensure the robustness of the findings, each study underwent a critical assessment of methodological quality Shrivastava and Mishra, (2025). For empirical and modelling studies, the evaluation considered the relevance of the parameters used, the rigor applied in calibration and validation procedures, the clarity and transparency of numerical methods, the appropriateness of experimental design, and the reliability of the data employed. In the case of review articles, the assessment focused on the clarity of the research objective, argumentative coherence, and the depth of theoretical analysis Nezameslami et al. (2025), enabling the appraisal of the overall strength of the evidence provided.
2.8 Analytical approach
The final stage of the analysis involved integrating the compiled information into a coherent interpretive framework supported by a qualitative thematic synthesis, highlighting both convergences and divergences across the evaluated models and conditions Driesen et al. (2022). Additionally, a comparative analysis was conducted between studies employing mechanistic, hydrogeochemical, and numerical models and those using artificial intelligence or hybrid approaches, allowing the assessment of practical differences across methodological categories Mishra and Mishra, (2023).
3 Results
The analysis of the 21 studies included in this systematic review (Table 2) indicates that the heavy metals most frequently evaluated in agricultural soil transport and leaching models were cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni). These elements were consistently identified as priority contaminants due to their high mobility, environmental persistence, and potential to compromise groundwater quality. Across the reviewed investigations, Cd and Zn exhibited the greatest mobility under varying hydrological and geochemical conditions, while Pb and Cu showed stronger retention linked to soil organic matter and oxide phases. Nickel (Ni), although less frequently discussed in the literature, demonstrated significant transport behaviour in both disturbed and undisturbed soils, particularly under acidic conditions and during high-intensity infiltration events, reinforcing its relevance within integrated contamination risk assessments.
Table 2. PRISMA Summary of Included Studies.
4 Discussion
4.1 Environmental and soil drivers of heavy-metal mobility
The findings of this review demonstrate that the mobility and leaching of heavy metals in agricultural soils are governed by the coupled interaction of soil physicochemical properties, hydrological conditions, and anthropogenic influences. Several studies consistently emphasize that variables such as pH, organic matter content, texture, and redox status strongly regulate metal retention and release (Jana et al., 2025; Wu et al., 2024). Acidic environments promote metal desorption through the protonation of mineral surfaces, which reduces the availability of negatively charged adsorption sites Luo et al. (2020). This mechanism is consistent with reports of enhanced Cd and Zn release during acid rain events and under intensive nitrogen fertilization regimes Wang Q. et al. (2024).
In addition, the geochemical partitioning of metals exerts a decisive control on their transport behaviour. Studies indicate that Pb and Cu display strong affinity for Fe and Mn oxyhydroxides and soil organic matter, whereas Cd and Zn are predominantly associated with exchangeable and carbonate bound fractions, making them more responsive to climatic fluctuations and changes in ionic strength Liu et al., 2022; Wen et al. (2025); Wang F. et al. (2024); Luo et al. (2020); Wu et al. (2024). The critical role of colloidal fractions in enhancing metal mobility further reinforces the importance of micro-scale soil processes in controlling leaching potential Dashtey, (2024).
4.2 Hydrological controls and agricultural management practices
Hydrological dynamics emerge as a central driver of metal redistribution within agricultural systems. Research by Tudi et al. (2024) demonstrates that drip irrigation substantially modifies metal transport pathways by generating localized wetting fronts that promote superficial accumulation within the wetted bulb, thereby increasing plant uptake and subsequent bioaccumulation. Simultaneously, the elevated soil moisture levels associated with such irrigation practices facilitate deeper percolation and enhance downward contaminant fluxes.
The presence of structural soil features such as bio pores, fissures, and macropores further accelerates metal migration toward subsurface horizons by shortening residence time within the soil matrix and limiting adsorption processes Daneshyar et al. (2024); Xu et al. (2024). These processes significantly increase the vulnerability of underlying groundwater resources, particularly under intensive agricultural management.
4.2.1 Bioaccumulation and food-chain implications
Beyond soil and groundwater contamination, heavy-metal mobility in agricultural systems has profound implications for bioaccumulation and human exposure through the food chain. While numerous studies emphasize that metals occurring in exchangeable or weakly bound fractions particularly Cd, Zn, and Ni exhibit high bioavailability and are readily absorbed by plant root systems under acidic conditions and elevated ionic strength (Jana et al., 2025; Wu et al., 2024; Wang F. et al., 2024), current modelling frameworks frequently treat bioaccumulation as a secondary outcome rather than as a coupled controlling process. This simplification introduces substantial uncertainty when translating soil contamination levels into actual human health risk.
In contrast, metals such as Pb and Cu, which display stronger associations with soil organic matter and Fe, Mn oxyhydroxides (Liu et al., 2022; Wen et al., 2025), are often assumed to pose lower short-term bioavailability risks. However, this assumption neglects the cumulative effects of long-term agricultural management. Practices such as continuous wastewater irrigation, repeated fertilizer application, and intensive cropping progressively modify soil geochemistry and destabilize these bound fractions, resulting in delayed but persistent release into plant-available pools (Amiri and Nakhaei, 2024; Luo et al., 2020). Consequently, models that rely solely on initial speciation states may significantly underestimate future bioaccumulation potential.
Moreover, the interaction between hydrological drivers and biological uptake further complicates risk projections. Enhanced percolation and preferential flow pathways increase metal delivery to root zones, while climate-driven extremes intensify both soil desorption processes and plant uptake dynamics (Dashtey, 2024; Ma et al., 2024). These coupled feedback reveal that bioaccumulation cannot be predicted reliably from static soil properties alone but must be conceptualized as an emergent property of dynamic soil, water, plant interactions. Integrating bioaccumulation modules into reactive transport models represents a necessary step toward more realistic risk assessments.
4.3 Climatic extremes, mining legacies, and contaminant release
In landscapes affected by mining activities and tailings, the interaction between hydrological forcing and legacy contamination becomes especially critical. Evidence indicates that extreme climatic events can trigger abrupt increases in metal mobility Amiri and Nakhaei, (2024). Field observations in abandoned mining areas document increases of up to 70%–85% in Cd and Zn release during intense rainfall episodes Wang Q. et al. (2024). Complementary modelling studies of tropical tailings suggest that elements such as Mn may reach hazardous concentrations even a century after deposition (Ma et al., 2024). These patterns are consistent with broader hydrological assessments warning of enhanced surface and subsurface contaminant transport under climate change scenarios, particularly during the onset of wet seasons Dashtey, (2024).
4.4 Modelling performance, limitations, and future vulnerability
Numerical modelling plays a fundamental role in elucidating these transport processes. Among the reviewed tools, HYDRUS-1D is the most widely applied, owing to its capacity to simulate unsaturated flow, dispersion, sorption, and coupled reactive transport processes Amiri and Nakhaei, (2024); Feng et al. (2025). Its proven ability to reproduce breakthrough (BTC) curves from column experiments underscores its value in predicting vertical metal displacement under varying hydrological conditions. Meanwhile, hydrogeochemical modelling with PHREEQC reveals that metal speciation, rather than total concentration, primarily governs mobility in acid drainage environments Luo et al. (2020).
Despite these advances, significant limitations remain, including deficiencies in data availability and quality, inadequate representation of soil heterogeneity, and restricted validation of long-term scenarios St-Arnault et al. (2020); Zeng et al. (2023). These challenges highlight the need for multiscale modelling frameworks that integrate column experiments, field observations, and advanced three-dimensional geochemical simulations to reduce predictive uncertainty.
Overall, this synthesis confirms that metal mobility in agricultural soils arises from a complex, non-linear interaction of soil properties, hydrological processes, climatic forcing, and anthropogenic activities. Under intensifying climatic pressures, agricultural landscapes are expected to exhibit increasing vulnerability to heavy-metal leaching. Projections based on numerical modelling indicate that this vulnerability is likely to escalate in coming decades unless robust management and monitoring strategies capable of capturing temporal fluctuations in metal transport are systematically implemented.
To integrate the complex interactions identified across the reviewed studies, an integrated conceptual framework was developed (Figure 3). This framework synthesizes the relationships between contamination sources, soil physicochemical processes, hydrological controls, modelling approaches, and their resulting environmental and health impacts, providing a comprehensive perspective of heavy-metal transport and leaching in agricultural soil groundwater systems.
Figure 3. Conceptual framework of heavy-metal transport and leaching in agricultural soil–groundwater systems.
4.5 Critical synthesis of modelling approaches, assumptions, and system boundaries
4.5.1 Model assumptions and implications for predictive validity
The reviewed modelling frameworks differ in their conceptualisation of soil–metal–water interactions, which directly conditions their predictive reliability (Komuro and Kikumoto, 2024; Luo et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2023). One of the principal divergences lies in the treatment of sorption processes. Models based on instantaneous chemical equilibrium provide computational efficiency but tend to underestimate retardation and transient accumulation in structurally complex soils, whereas kinetic sorption formulations capture time-dependent exchange more realistically, albeit introducing higher data requirements and greater parameter uncertainty (Luo et al., 2020; Daneshyar et al., 2024; Wang F. et al., 2024).
The representation of soil structure constitutes an additional limitation. Most one-dimensional approaches assume effective homogeneity, thereby neglecting microporosity, fissures, and stratified heterogeneity that govern field-scale transport (Xu et al., 2024; Dashtey, 2024). Hydrological assumptions further shape model behaviour, as one-dimensional vertical flow formulations describe controlled leaching scenarios effectively yet fail to resolve lateral redistribution and preferential pathways commonly observed in agricultural landscapes (Tudi et al., 2024; Ji et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2024).
Hydro geochemically coupled simulations demonstrate that metal speciation governs mobility, bioavailability, and long-term environmental risk more effectively than bulk concentration alone (Luo et al., 2020; Zeng et al., 2022; Wen et al., 2025). Models that omit speciation therefore introduce systematic bias into exposure and risk projections (Amiri and Nakhaei, 2024; Feng et al., 2025).
4.5.2 Extension of system boundaries: soil, air and atmospheric transport
Agricultural soils function as active sources of contaminated particulate matter, whereby dust resuspension and atmospheric transport driven by wind erosion redistribute metal-bearing particles, thereby shaping soil contamination patterns and long-term biogeochemical cycling (Bracamonte-Terán et al., 2023; Kibblewhite, 2018; Jing et al., 2018). These processes modify surface loading, reintroduce metals into agricultural systems, and alter spatial exposure patterns (Dashtey, 2024; Ji et al., 2021).
5 Conclusion
The synthesis of the 21 included studies indicated that heavy-metal mobility and leaching in agricultural soils were controlled by coupled physicochemical and hydrological drivers rather than a single mechanism. Soil pH, texture, organic matter, and redox conditions consistently regulated partitioning and sorption–desorption dynamics, shaping the transport and bioavailability of Cd, Zn, Pb, Cu, and Ni.
The reviewed evidence showed that hydrodynamic forcing and management practices materially altered migration pathways. Irrigation regimes, infiltration intensity, preferential flow features (macropores, fissures), and extreme hydrometeorological events accelerated downward fluxes and redistribution, increasing the likelihood of contaminant transfer to deeper horizons and, in vulnerable settings, to shallow aquifers.
Moreover, the modelling evidence demonstrated a strong capacity to reproduce vertical transport processes under controlled assumptions, with HYDRUS-based applications predominating in simulations of unsaturated flow and breakthrough behaviour. Nevertheless, recurrent limitations were identified, arising from the scarcity of long-term field datasets for model calibration and validation, which constrained cross-site transferability and complicated the robust interpretation of environmental risk.
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Author contributions
SR-R: Writing – original draft, Investigation. HB-R: Methodology, Writing – original draft. JP-C: Supervision, Writing – review and editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to the Universidad Politécnica Estatal del Carchi for the academic support and institutional resources provided during the development of this review. The contribution of colleagues who offered valuable comments that significantly enhanced the quality of the manuscript is also duly acknowledged.
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
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Keywords: agricultural soils, cadmium, copper, groundwater contamination, heavy metal transport, hydrus-1D, lead, nickel
Citation: Ramos-Romero SS, Benavides-Rosales HR and Peña-Chamorro JJ (2026) Advances in modelling the transport of heavy metals in agricultural soils and their leaching into groundwater: an integrative critical review. Front. Environ. Sci. 14:1764394. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2026.1764394
Received: 09 December 2025; Accepted: 09 January 2026;
Published: 27 January 2026.
Edited by:
Diana Meza-Figueroa, University of Sonora, MexicoReviewed by:
Benedetto Schiavo, National Autonomous University of Mexico, MexicoSofía Navarro-Espinoza, University of Sonora, Mexico
Copyright © 2026 Ramos-Romero, Benavides-Rosales and Peña-Chamorro. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Steven Stalin Ramos-Romero, c3RldmVuLnJhbW9zQHVwZWMuZWR1LmVj