Source-to-sink controls on reservoir distribution in the southeastern Huizhou Depression, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea

This study combines petrological, logging, and seismic analyses to investigate the development of favorable reservoirs within a source-to-sink framework. Here, we focus on the Upper Enping Formation of the Huizhou 26 Sag, located in the Huizhou Depression of the Pearl River Mouth Basin. In general, the study area can be divided into three segments, each controlled by different boundary faults. The source-to-sink analysis first reveals that five major source catchments, each with distinct drainage area and relief, developed within Mesozoic intrusive rocks, enabling a quantitative assessment of the sediment supply capacity for each catchment. Sediment transport systems are then evaluated based on the characteristics of boundary faults. Specifically, fault throw influences the preferred drainage pathways into the lake, while fault geometry and configuration regulate drainage convergence upon entry. When both source catchments and transport systems are optimal, braided river deltas form within the lake, as observed in the central and northern segments; otherwise, fan deltas prevail, as in the southern segment. In this source-to-sink context, the factors influencing high-quality reservoirs are further investigated. First, sedimentary facies exhibit first-order control on reservoir quality, with braided river delta plain facies having much better reservoir properties than fan delta facies. Secondly, enhanced transport in areas such as multi-stepped faults and paleo-uplifts can significantly improve reservoir quality. Finally, volcanic material infill can further modify reservoirs through various diagenetic processes. Taken together, this study demonstrates that braided river deltas within source-to-sink systems characterized by optimal catchment and transport conditions should serve as the primary targets for favorable reservoirs. In contrast, in areas dominated by fan deltas, only sandstones significantly influenced by processes such as enhanced transport and dissolution can develop into high-quality reservoirs. These insights contribute to advancing the exploration of the Enping Formation and guiding future exploration of the deeper strata in the southwestern Huizhou Depression.

1 Introduction

In recent decades, source-to-sink (S2S) analysis has been increasingly adopted to obtain a holistic understanding of sediment generation, transport, and deposition (Allen, 2008; Sømme et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2024; Helland-Hansen et al., 2016). The S2S analysis integrates source areas, sediment transport pathways, and depositional systems to reveal their genetic relationships and to better characterize the spatial and temporal evolution of sedimentary systems (Allen and Hovius, 1998; Allen, 2008; Sømme et al., 2013; Sømme and Jackson, 2013; Pechlivanidou et al., 2018). For instance, Sømme et al. (2009) examined morphological and sedimentological parameters of modern source-to-sink systems to demonstrate their genetic coupling. Importantly, insights from such analyses have proven effective in locating petroleum reservoirs and directing exploration efforts (Martinsen, 2010; Zhou et al., 2024; Lin et al., 2015; Li et al., 2017). In short, S2S analysis has significantly advanced our understanding of sedimentary processes; however, most studies to date focus on passive continental margins (e.g., Sømme et al., 2013; Sømme and Jackson, 2013).

In continental rift basins, normal faulting has been demonstrated to dominate stratigraphic development (e.g., Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; Pechlivanidou et al., 2019). This is not surprising, given that fault-induced uplift rates govern long-term sediment generation (e.g., Whittaker et al., 2010; Elliott et al., 2012; Zhou et al., 2024). In addition, certain fault configurations, such as relay ramps, influence sediment transport pathways (e.g., Athmer and Luthi, 2011; Athmer et al., 2011; Plenderleith et al., 2022). Finally, fault displacement controls the development of depositional systems via accommodation space (e.g., Allen and Hovius, 1998; Barrett et al., 2019). It becomes clear that normal faulting plays a crucial role in S2S processes; however, most studies focus on either source or sink, rather than the system as a whole. This gap not only hinders our understanding of S2S processes in continental rift basins but also limits the effectiveness of petroleum exploration in these settings.

The Zhu I Depression, located in the central-eastern part of the Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB), is the basin’s most significant oil and gas-producing area (Figure 1; Robison et al., 1998; Peng et al., 2022; Shi et al., 2022). In its northeastern area, the Huizhou 26 Sag is the most hydrocarbon-rich sag in the Zhu I Depression (Figure 1; Shi et al., 2015; Peng et al., 2023; Shi et al., 2017). To date, over ten oil and gas fields have been discovered around its periphery, representing one-third of all oil fields in the eastern South China Sea (Shi et al., 2022). Nonetheless, an estimated 700 million tons of resources remain untapped. In recent years, the Enping Formation becomes the main target for large- and medium-sized discoveries, but identifying high-quality reservoirs remains a key bottleneck. The well-explored and petroleum rich nature of the area has made it a prominent focus of research, revealing complex depositional systems and reservoir development conditions (e.g., Xu et al., 2024). Thus, the Huizhou 26 Sag presents an ideal case study for conducting S2S analysis in continental rift basins.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Huizhou depression, Pearl River Mouth Basin, South China Sea: location and stratigraphic column.

To bridge the gap, this study uses a S2S framework to investigate the sedimentary evolution and reservoir development characteristics of the Enping Formation in the Huizhou 26 Sag from a S2S perspective. Based on available 3D seismic and well data, this work first characterizes source catchments in terms of sediment supply and transport, and clarifies the distribution of fan delta and braided river delta systems. The latest core analysis and laboratory testing are also analyzed to evaluate reservoir characteristics. The findings of the study can provide both theoretical insights and practical exploration guidance for identifying and confirming high-quality reservoirs in the Zhu I Depression and other similar basins.

2 Geological settings

The Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB) is a Cenozoic continental rift basin, whose formation and evolution were influenced by the collision between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate, the subduction and compression of the Paleo-Pacific and Philippine plates, and the expansion of the South China Sea (Shi et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2022). Since the Late Mesozoic, under the extensional tectonic regime that began in the Paleocene, the widely distributed Mesozoic folded basement of the South China continental margin has undergone intense rifting, forming a structural pattern characterized by multiple sags and uplifts, with alternating uplift-sag structures (Figure 1). The initial stage of rifting began with the first phase of the Zhu-Qiong Movement in the early Eocene (∼47.8 Ma, seismic marker T90/Tg), during which basement extension led to the deposition of the Wenchang Formation (Figure 1). The second phase of the Zhu-Qiong Movement in the middle to late Eocene (∼39.0 Ma, seismic marker T80) marked the transition from rifting to thermal subsidence (Figure 1). During this stage, fault activity weakened while initial thermal subsidence intensified, leading to the deposition of the Enping Formation. Subsequently, the PRMB fully transitioned into a passive continental margin evolution stage, dominated by thermal subsidence processes (Figure 1).

In the PRMB, seismic and well data reveal a stratigraphic succession that, from bottom to top, consists of the Mesozoic (buried hill basement), the Paleogene Wenchang and Enping formations, the Oligocene Zhuhai Formation, the Lower Miocene Zhujiang Formation, the Middle Miocene Hanjiang Formation, the Upper Miocene Yuehai Formation, the Pliocene Wanshan Formation, and the Quaternary (Figure 1; Shi et al., 2020; Shi et al., 2022). The Paleogene Wenchang Formation, consisting of dark-colored lacustrine mudstones from a semi-deep to deep lake environment, serves as the primary source rock (Figure 1). The Enping Formation, deposited during the second phase of rifting, consists of lacustrine, lacustrine-swamp, and fluvial-deltaic deposits, with lithologies primarily including gray-white sandstones, siltstones, light gray mudstones, argillaceous siltstones, and coal seams (Figure 1).

The Huizhou 26 Sag, located in the southwestern part of the Huizhou Depression in the central Zhu I Depression, covers an area of approximately 600 km², with a maximum sedimentary thickness of up to 3,000 m (Figure 1). The late Enping Formation records the structural transition from the syn-rift to post-rift (thermal subsidence) stage, exhibiting both the structural characteristics of the waning rifting phase and the initial development of the thermal sag phase. Based on typical seismic reflection relationships, well logs, drilling data, and biostratigraphic evidence, four sequence boundaries can be identified at the top, bottom, and within the Enping Formation. These boundaries, from bottom to top, correspond to seismic markers T80, T73, T72, and T70, subdividing the formation into three third-order sequences: EP12, EP3, and EP4. These correspond to the fourth, third, and first and second members of the Enping Formation, respectively (Figure 1). The primary target reservoir, the second member of the Enping Formation (EP2), is further subdivided into three sand groups: EP2-1, EP2-2, and EP2-3.

3 Data and methods

In this study, 3-D seismic and well data were supplied by the Shenzhen Branch of the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC). The study area is covered by post-stack 3-D seismic data (Figure 1), with an effective frequency range of 8–84 Hz and a dominant frequency of ∼42 Hz. More than 30 exploration wells have been tied to the seismic dataset using synthetic seismograms. These wells are distributed across the Huizhou 26-A oil field, Huizhou 27-A oil-bearing structure, Huizhou 27-B oil field, and Huizhou 21-D gas-bearing structure (Figure 1).

3.1 Source catchment characterization

To characterize sediment generation and transport, a paleogeomorphology map was reconstructed and then analyzed. In general, boundary faults represent the division between source and sink segments, for which the paleogeomorphology is reconstructed, respectively. Here, the paleogeomorphology of the source segment is defined using the Tg time-structure surface, whereas that of the sink segment is characterized by variations in the thickness of the upper Enping Formation (Figure 2). The reconstructed paleogeomorphology was then employed to delineate catchments (Figure 2a) and to examine sediment-transport pathway systems within (Figure 2b). In this process, topographic points at different elevations were traced to delineate drainage divides across multiple hierarchical levels (e.g., Zhou et al., 2022). The long-lived incised valleys were identified as the candidate pathways (e.g., Zeng et al., 2019). For each catchment, key morphometric parameters were measured, including area, relief, number of valleys, their cross-sectional shape, and width-to-depth (W/D) ratios, to evaluate sediment supply and transport capacity (Table 1). Finally, we characterized fault throw and spatial configuration to assess their influence on sediment transport and depositional patterns (Table 1).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Source catchment delineation and drainage system characterization in the Upper Enping Formation on the Southeastern Margin of Huizhou 26 Sag, PRMB: map view (a) and seismic profile view (b).

Table 1

Table 1. S2S parameters of the upper section of the Enping Formation in the southeast margin of the Huizhou 26 Sag, PRMB.

3.2 Sink characterization

To characterize depositional systems, seismic and well data were combined to identify the two main delta types in the study area: fan delta and braided river systems (e.g., Xu et al., 2024). First, seismic-reflection features, including amplitude, continuity, and frequency, were interpreted to identify deltaic deposits and distinguish between delta types. Typical cross-sections along and across the depositional dip were constructed to illustrate these characteristics (Figure 5). Where available, lithofacies data (including lithology and sedimentary structures) and stacking patterns from well logs were then integrated to further corroborate the seismic-based interpretations (Figure 6; Figure 8). In this context, typical reservoir data provided by CNOOC, including composition, porosity, and permeability, were analyzed to characterize the reservoir properties of both delta systems. The reservoir data are combined with microscopic analyses to illustrate key diagenetic processes affecting reservoir quality.

4 Source catchments: sediment supply and transport

The basement rocks in the source area, through weathering and erosion, produce detrital sediments that form the material basis for S2S systems. In our study area, the sediments are primarily derived from the Dongsha Uplift and the Xihui Low Uplift to the south of the Huizhou Sag (Tian et al., 2020). Petrographic observations and microscopic identification of basement core samples and rock fragments reveal that the basement rock types in the Dongsha Uplift are mainly granodiorite and monzonitic granite. Further, zircon U-Pb isotopic dating of basal rock fragments from multiple wells in the region indicates ages ranging from 133 to 113 Ma, suggesting that the lithology of the source area is mainly Mesozoic acidic intrusive rocks (Liu et al., 2025).

The source area is separated from the depositional area by boundary faults, whose activity influences the development of drainage systems in the source area and controls the convergence of these systems as they enter the depositional basin. During the multi-phase extensional rifting of the Paleogene in the PRMB, numerous shovel-shaped, slab-shaped, and slope-bench-type faults developed. As the basin continued to undergo rifting and fracturing, initially independent faults gradually expanded, causing adjacent faults to connect and combine, eventually forming a variety of boundary fault types. Based on the three main boundary faults that developed in the study area, the study area can be divided into three segments: the southern segment controlled mainly by F2, the central segment controlled by both F3 and F4, and the northern segment controlled mainly by F4 (Figure 2).

4.1 Catchment delineation and drainage morphology

The magnitude of sediment supply from catchments is mostly determined by the size and the elevation difference of the catchments (Whittaker et al., 2010; Syvitski and Milliman, 2007). Based on the geomorphic features of the source area, the source area can be divided into five major catchment units (C1—C5), with catchment areas ranging from 29.94 to 52.56 km² (Figure 2; Table 1). Among them, the northern catchment units, C4 and C5, have the largest catchment areas (43.26–52.56 km²) and the most significant elevation differences (200.01–202.25 m, measured according to Tg) (Table 1). This indicates the C4 and C5, with a larger area subject to weathering and erosion, exhibit stronger sediment supply capacity. In the central segment, the C3 catchment unit has the smallest catchment area (29.94 km²), but the elevation difference is moderate (183.31 m, measured according to Tg), suggesting a moderate sediment supply capacity (Figure 2; Table 1). The southern catchment units, C1 and C2, have moderate catchment areas (33.15–39.96 km²), but their elevation differences are small (139.39–168.26 m, measured according to Tg). Combined with their low slope (Figure 2), the catchments are interpreted to have a weak sediment supply capacity (Table 1).

The drainage systems in the source area serve as the transport pathway for detrital sediments formed by weathering and erosion of the basement rocks. The drainage systems consist of a series of ancient valleys developed within the catchments (Figure 2). The cross-sectional geometry, relief, and length of these drainage systems determine the strength of the hydrodynamic energy of the drainage systems within each catchment unit. Here, the quantitative characteristics of the drainage systems in the source area are provided in Table 1. The results show that within the C1 catchment unit, the V1 valley is W-shaped, with a width-to-depth ratio of 34.0, a length of 7.6 km, suggesting relatively weak hydrodynamic energy (Table 1). The V2 valley in the C2 catchment unit has a U-shape, with a width-to-depth ratio of 23.1, a length of 8.4 km, suggesting moderate hydrodynamic energy (Table 1). In the C3 and C4 catchment units, the V3b and V4 valleys have symmetrical V-shaped morphologies, width-to-depth ratios of 8.2–18.1, suggesting stronger hydrodynamic energy (Table 1). The V5 valley in the C5 catchment unit has an asymmetric U-shaped, flat-bottomed valley with a large width-to-depth ratio (34.1), corresponding to a weak hydrodynamic energy (Table 1). Further, the relatively gentle fault trough between the valley and the boundary fault (Figure 2) can further reduce the hydrodynamic energy before the water enters the lake (Table 1).

4.2 Fault throw and preferred drainage pathways

The throws along the strike of the F2–F4 boundary faults are analyzed to identify the preferred pathways for footwall drainages entering the lake (Figure 3). This is because the zones where faults connect often exhibit small throws and become the preferred locations for drainage systems to enter the lake (e.g., Gawthorpe and Leeder, 2000; Athmer and Luthi, 2011). The results indicate that the southern F2 fault is highly active, displaying a parabolic throw profile that peaks at the center and decreases significantly toward the fault tips (Figure 3). This suggests that the footwall drainage systems are more likely to be diverted towards fault tips as they enter the lake. In comparison, the northern F4 fault exhibits weak overall activity, with minimal variation in throw along its strike (Figure 3), suggesting that the drainage systems may directly transverse the fault. The F3 fault in the central has the weakest activity among the three faults, with the smallest throw occurring at its junction with the F4 fault (Figure 3). This not only allows the junction to collect footwall drainages but also makes it the preferred pathway for their entry into the lake.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Fault throw characteristics in the Upper Enping Formation on the Southeastern Margin of Huizhou 26 Sag, PRMB.

4.3 Fault slope and drainage convergence

Fault slope directs the drainage systems from the source area to the depositional area, with their geometry controlling the extent of convergence once the drainage systems enter the lake (e.g., Zhu et al., 2014). In our study area, the southern segment is controlled by fault F2, forming a steep-planar fault slope (Figure 4a). The planar fault slopes are likely to disperse sediments and increase water energy as drainages move downslope. The central segment, however, is influenced by both F3 and F4, shaping a wall-corner topography (Figure 4b). This suggests that drainage systems are likely to converge, but their entry into the lake is probably high-energy. The northern segment, dominated by fault F4, features a stepped-planar fault slope that can significantly reduce drainage energy (Figure 4c).

Figure 4

Figure 4. Three types of fault slopes and their impacts on drainage convergence in the Upper Enping Formation on the Southeastern Margin of Huizhou 26 Sag, PRMB. (a) Type I: steep-planar, (b) Type II: wall-corner, (c) Type III: stepped-planar.

In general, concave-up fault slopes tend to converge sediments, but planar fault and stepped-planar fault slopes are more likely to disperse sediments. As drainages move down fault slopes, planar faults may increase their flow energy, whereas stepped-planar faults appear to reduce it.

5 Depositional systems: sedimentary-reservoir characteristics

5.1 Fan delta systems

5.1.1 Facies characterization

Fan deltas, developed mostly along the boundary fault F2 in the southern segment, are characterized by medium to weak amplitude, weak continuity, medium to high frequency, and chaotic reflections (Figure 5d) (Henstra et al., 2016; McPherson et al., 1987). Along the sediment supply direction, steep and short prograding reflections near the fault indicate the fan delta plain formed by gravity flow (Figure 5a). Perpendicular to the sediment supply direction, dome-shaped reflections dominate, likely representing the lateral oscillation of the lobe body (Figure 5c). Moving basin-ward, the seismic facies transitions rapidly into medium to strong continuity, medium to low frequency, and medium to strong amplitude, which is interpreted as a medium-deep lake mudstone deposit (Figure 5a).

Figure 5

Figure 5. Seismic facies characteristics and distributions of fan delta and braid river delta on the Southeastern Margin of Huizhou 26 Sag, PRMB: (a–c) seismic profiles, (d) plan-view distribution.

In general, fan delta facies are primarily composed of thick layers of gravelly medium-to-coarse sandstone and sandstone conglomerate interbedded with thin layers of mudstone (Figure 6a). The well log features a serrated and box-shaped natural gamma ray curve (Figure 6a). This indicates poor sand-mud separation and a mixed sedimentary environment where poorly sorted gravity flow deposits occur.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Reservoir characteristics of the Upper Enping Formation fan delta on the Southeastern Edge of Huizhou 26 Sag, PRMB: (a) well B7-3, (b) ternary plot, (c) compositional plot, and (d) key diagenetic processes, including (d-1) well A6-2, 3155 m, poorly sorted, low compositional maturity, and extremely poor pore development, (d-2) well A6-1, 3234.5 m, abundant Kaolinite (A) filling between particles and micropores, (d-3) well A6-1, 3184 m, with interlocking crystalline cemented Calcite grains, well A6-1, 3415.2 m, (d-4) acicular Chlorite group and secondary enlarged quartz inclusions coexist and fill intergranular pores.

5.1.2 Reservoir characterization

The delta plain sub-facies has an overall high sand content and individual sand bodies are relatively thick, but the compositional and textural maturity are extremely low. In such delta plain sandstones, the lithology is mainly lithic sandstone, feldspathic lithic sandstone, and feldspar sandstone (Figure 6b). The content of volcanic-dominated lithic fragments is often high (Figure 6c), and the quartz content varies widely, ranging from 20% to 75% (Figure 6b). In particular, microscope observations indicate that primary pores are barely developed (0.5%), suggesting poor reservoir properties (Figure 6a). In comparison, the delta front sub-facies has a moderate to low compositional and textural maturity. In areas impacted by volcanic activity, such as the Huizhou 26-A structure, the fan delta reservoirs have high amounts and diverse types of filling materials, including clayey matrix (Figure 6d–1), kaolinite (Figure 6d–2), calcite (Figure 6d–3), and chlorite (Figure 6d–4). The diagenetic processes are relatively complex, significantly affecting the physical properties of the Enping Formation reservoirs (Xu et al., 2024; Bello et al., 2022).

5.2 Braided river systems

5.2.1 Facies characterization

Braided river deltas, developed in the central and northern segments of the study area, exhibit moderate amplitude, moderate continuity, medium-low frequency, and parallel-subparallel reflection characteristics (Figure 5b; McPherson et al., 1987). Along the sediment supply direction, a group of low-angle foreland reflections with relatively long vertical extensions can be identified. Perpendicular to the sediment supply direction, there are gentle bidirectional downlap reflections, likely formed by the lateral migration of wide, gentle river channels (Figure 5c).

In general, braided river deltas are primarily composed of medium-to-thick beds of gravel-bearing medium-to-coarse sandstone and sandstone-conglomerate (Figure 7a). In these coarse-grained sandstones, wavy, flaser, and massive bedding can be observed. In addition, oxidized mudstones and coal seams commonly develop near the fault zones, typical evidence for terrestrial environments. The logging shows serrated box-shaped, bell-shaped, finger-like, and funnel-shaped curves (Figure 7a). The high degree of sand-mud differentiation suggests these well-sorted deposits are dominated by traction flows. The sand content is generally high (50.8%–84.7%), and individual sand bodies are often thick, though they exhibit strong lateral variations (Figure 7a).

Figure 7

Figure 7. Reservoir characteristics of the Upper Enping Formation braid-delta on the Southeastern Edge of Huizhou 26 Sag, PRMB: (a) well B5-2, (b) ternary plot, (c) compositional plot, and (d) key diagenetic processes, including (d-1) well A6-1, 3235 m, dissolution pores in feldspar grains, (d-2) well A6-7, 3660 m, filled with organic matter in intergranular pores, (d-3) well B5-2, 3770 m, tuffaceous filling between particles and visible dissolution, (d-4) well B5-2, 3815 m, tuffaceous content in interstitial material (10%) and volcanic rock debris (55%).

5.2.2 Reservoir characterization

In general, the braided river deltas have moderate to high compositional and structural maturity, with sandstones being dominated by feldspar-bearing sandstone and rock-fragment feldspar sandstone (Figure 7b). The quartz content exceeds 66% (Figure 7b), while rock fragments, primarily composed of volcanic rocks and granite, range from 18% to 32% in content (Figure 7c). The sandstone reservoirs exhibit well-developed primary pores, with a porosity of 7.5%–15.0%, corresponding to measured porosity of 7.1%–13.8% in core samples from depth (Figure 7a). In addition, the permeability is greater than 10 × 10⁻³ μm² in 48% of the core samples, indicating good permeability conditions (Figure 7a). Further observations show that intragranular dissolution pores (<1.5%) and mold pores are only locally developed and in small amounts (Figure 7d–1). Nevertheless, volcanic activity can also significantly impact these reservoirs. This is well illustrated in the braided river delta reservoirs of the Huizhou 27-B structure, where numerous ash tuff deposits fill pores in thin sections (Figure 7d–2d–3). In these thin sections, organic matter is commonly observed (Figure 7D–4), indicating widespread early oil and gas charging. Because organic matter occupying intergranular pores can hinder later cementation and protect primary porosity, those highly charged sandstones near the hydrocarbon source rocks are likely to develop as high-quality reservoirs.

6 Discussion

6.1 Boundary fault controls on source-to-sink systems

In general, our results show that three boundary faults divide the study area into three segments, each characterized by distinct S2S systems (Table 1). In the southern segment, the fault F2 is the most active fault and has a planar cross-sectional geometry. The three catchments (C1-C3) bounded by the fault have extensive catchment area (103.1 km² in total) but exhibit moderate relief (139.4 ∼183.3 ms). This suggests the magnitude of sediment supply is moderate to weak. In addition, the drainage systems within are characterized by W-shaped and U-shaped valleys, with a width-to-depth ratio ranging from 22.5 to 35.3, suggesting the water dynamics are mainly moderate to weak (Table 1). Because of the planar geometry, the fault cannot effectively converge sediments dispersed along the fault into the lake (Table 1). This insufficient sediment supply coupled with poor sediment convergence eventually leads to coarse-grained fan delta aprons developing along the fault F2.

In contrast, the central segment is dominated by the connected faults F3 and F4. Because the lowest fault throw occurs at the connection zone (Figure 3), the central segment functions as optimal pathways for drainage systems to flux into the basin. In addition, the connected two faults form a wall-corner configuration, maximizing their ability to converge sediments entering into the basin. Notably, the neighboring catchment C4 has a catchment area of 43.26 km² and a relief of 200 ms, resulting in a high sediment supply (Table 1). The drainage systems, characterized by V-shaped, and a width-to-depth ratio of 18.1 valleys, also exhibit strong drainage energy. These favorable conditions for sediment supply, transport, and deposition facilitate the development of a braided river delta.

In the northern segment, the main section of boundary fault F4 corresponds to catchment C5, which has the largest catchment area (52.56 km²) and the highest source relief (202.3 ms) (Table 1). This suggests a strong sediment supply potential. Further, the drainage systems exhibit a U-shaped channel morphology and are further influenced by a long, gentle fault trough in the source area, both of which weaken drainage energy. In addition, the low lakeward dip of the fault plane further reduces the energy of water entering the lake. As a result, a braided river delta with medium to coarse-grained sediments develops, characterized by both plain and front subfacies.

6.2 Key factors driving favorable reservoir development

6.2.1 Favorable sedimentary facies

The study shows that the reservoir properties of the braided river delta facies are favorable, with permeability values mostly greater than 10 mD; however, the properties of the fan delta facies are relatively poor, with permeability values mostly less than 10 mD (Figure 8a). In addition, further analysis reveals that for the fan delta sandstones, sub-facies is also key in determining the reservoir physical properties, possibly due to longer transport distance can significant enhance compositional and structural maturity, and reduce clay content. Taking the lower section of the Enping Formation (Enping 3-4) from the Huizhou 26-A structure as an example, the comparison of wells close to the source (A6-2, A6-1) and those farther from the source (A6-3, A6-7) shows minimal variation in porosity (Figure 8b), but a clear improvement in permeability (Figure 8c) and composition maturity (Figure 8d). Wells A6-2 and A6-1, located near the source, encountered fan delta plain facies, dominated by feldspar-rich sandstone, with permeability mostly less than 10 mD (Figure 8). In contrast, wells A6-3 and A6-7, located in the middle to distal areas of the fan delta foreland, encountered feldspar quartz sandstone, lithic quartz sandstone, and lithic feldspar sandstone, with reservoir properties reaching more than 1000 mD (Figure 8).

Figure 8

Figure 8. Scatter plot of core-measured porosity versus permeability, colored by sedimentary facies (a), along with porosity bar chart (b), permeability bar chart (c), and compositional ternary (d) for 5 wells drilling into the lower section of the Enping Formation in Huizhou 26-A structure (see Figure 2 for well locations).

6.2.2 Enhanced transport

When sedimentary facies is the same and transport distances are comparable, the modification effect brought by special topography—enhanced transport on stepped fault slopes and lake wave washing on paleo-uplifts—can significantly improve the reservoir quality of fan deltas. For example, in the Enping Formation, both wells A6-7 and A6-3 were coarse sandstones, and the GR curves showed box-type and bell-type characteristics (typical of fan delta front subaqueous channel microfacies, Figure 2a). In addition, both wells are located at a comparable distance from the source (approximately 5 km). If only considering the sedimentary facies and transport distance, wells 3 and 7 should have similar reservoir properties. However, measured permeability indi-cates that well 7 has better physical properties than well 3 in multiple intervals. Specifically, for the EP21 layer, well 7 has an average permeability of 326 mD, while well 3 has 82 mD; for the EP22 layer, well 7 has 22.7 mD, and well 3 has 1.9 mD; for the EP23 layer, well 7 has 10.5 mD, and well 3 has 1.1 mD. By reconstructing the paleogeomorphology of the area (Figure 9), we find that sedimentary system in the A6-7 well area is controlled by multi-stage intra-basin fault steps. The multi-stage fault steps help modify the reservoir by improving sorting and rounding, leading to better reservoir physical properties.

Figure 9

Figure 9. Temporal evolution of the reconstructed paleogeographic map of the Huizhou 26-A structure. (a) Late stage, (b) Mid stage, (c) Early stage.

In areas with a stable source supply, the topography of an underwater paleo-uplift allows high-energy lake wave processes to modify reservoir properties (Jiang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2024; Peng et al., 2024). In the Huizhou 26-A structure, the topography of a paleo-uplift is reconstructed from thickness variations after seismic isochrones at the sand layer group level are tracked (Figure 9). The results show that from early to late, the Huizhou 26-A paleo-uplift gradually filled and leveled (Figure 9). Specifically, the paleo-uplift had the largest topographic relief in the early stage, followed by mid stage, with late stage being relatively flat. Previous studies have shown that the topographic relief of ancient lake basin uplifts can cause different hydrodynamic forces to dominate, such as high-energy wave zones and breaking wave zones, which can lead to varying degrees of reservoir improvement (Jiang et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2024; Aleman et al., 2015). Taking well A6-1 as an example, in the early stage with the highest paleo-uplift amplitude, the clayey matrix content under the thin section was only 0.5%, the porosity was well-developed, and permeability reached 152 mD, consistent with the strongest lake wave modification effect. In contrast, the mid-stage paleo-uplift with a lower amplitude, developed sandstones with a clayey matrix content of about 2% and permeability of approximately 31 mD. The late-stage paleo-uplift, with a relatively flat topography, developed sandstones with a clayey matrix content of 7%, corresponding to poorer physical properties and permeability of only 0.5 mD. It is therefore evident that high-energy lake waves in an paleo-uplift topography setting can effectively improve reservoir properties.

6.2.3 Volcanic materials

In general, the impact of volcanic materials on reservoir properties is dual-faceted. On one hand, volcanic materials can fill pores, leading to a deterioration in reservoir quality (e.g., Weibel et al., 2023). On the other hand, their soluble components can dissolve under the action of organic acids, forming secondary pores (e.g., Jolley and Schofield, 2013; Weibel et al., 2023). In the study area, two structural blocks (Huizhou 26-A and Huizhou 27-B) (Figure 2) are affected by volcanic activity, but in both cases, volcanic materials predominantly have a negative impact on reservoir quality. In the Huizhou 26-A structure, wells 6-4, 6-4Sa, and 6-6d (Figure 2) encountered tuffaceous layers with no hydrocarbon signs (Ma et al., 2023). In the Huizhou 27-B structure, 8 wells targeting tuffaceous sandstone intervals had a failure rate of 92%, with 84% showing no hydrocarbon indications (Figure 2).

6.3 Implications for petroleum exploration

To sum up our findings, we construct two models for favorable reservoir development in our study area. In general, the first model is developed for fan deltas developed along steep fault slopes, such as the southern segment. The second model, however, is developed for braided river deltas mainly existing in the central and northern segments. Below, we detail their characteristics.

The first model is primarily characterized by proximity to the sediment source, paleo-slope, and paleo-faults, and can be divided into proximal, middle, and distal zones (Figure 10). In the proximal zone, under the influence of fault-controlled steep slopes near the sediment source, the sandstone is rich in volcanic clasts with coarse grain sizes. The high content of rigid particles enhances resistance to compaction, while rock fragments are prone to dissolution, contributing to pore development. In the middle zone, the clastic material commonly contains tuffaceous components. During burial, under the influence of organic acids and meteoric freshwater, chlorite rims undergo alteration, and the dissolution of laumontite and feldspar occurs, further improving reservoir properties and forming favorable reservoirs. In the distal zone, both dissolution and cementation are observed, with well-developed calcareous cementation and feldspar dissolution. Overall, fan delta reservoirs in the steep slope zone exhibit strong resistance to compaction, with primary porosity as the dominant pore type. Clastic grains and early-stage cements undergo dissolution and reworking, which enhances reservoir quality and facilitates reservoir development.

Figure 10

Figure 10. Reservoir development model for fan deltas formed along steep fault slopes.

In contrast, the second model can be summarized as a combination of distal sediment source, high compositional and textural maturity, and early hydrocarbon charging (Figure 11). In the proximal zone, reservoir composition is primarily influenced by the source rock, with additional contributions from volcanic activity, such as tuffaceous material and volcanic clasts. In the middle zone, depositional facies control the distribution of interstitial materials, while fluid activity plays a secondary role, with calcium cementation being dominant. In a relatively high-energy environment with a distal sediment source, sandstone exhibits higher compositional and structural maturity, leading to higher primary porosity and increased quartz content. The distal zone is more significantly influenced by depositional facies, with finer clastic particles exhibiting weaker resistance to compaction. The reservoir’s storage capacity is affected by burial depth. Organic acid injection into the reservoir sandstone promotes feldspar dissolution, forming abundant dissolution pores and effectively enhancing reservoir properties.

Figure 11

Figure 11. Reservoir development model for braided deltas formed along gentle fault slopes.

7 Conclusion

1. For the first time, a source-to-sink analysis of the upper Enping Formation has been conducted in the southeastern margin of the Huizhou 26 Depression in the Pearl River Mouth Basin. The study reveals that the parent rock in the study area mainly consists of Mesozoic acidic monzogranite and granodiorite, with “catchment drainage - fault slope” systems serving as sediment transport pathways. The source area can be divided into five major drainage units, each characterized by distinct drainage areas and elevation differences. The activity of boundary faults indicates preferential lake-entry pathways, and their unique cross-section geometry and configuration, including planar, steep slope type, stepped fault slope type, and wall-corner type, can determine the drainage convergence ability.

2. The interplay of “favorable facies, enhanced transport, and volcanic influence” serves as the key control on reservoir quality in the Enping Formation of the Huizhou 26 sag. High-quality sedimentary facies belts dictate the development of high-quality reservoirs, while transport processes—such as enhanced transport in a multi-stage setting and lake-wave winnowing under a paleo-uplift setting—play a critical role in enhancing reservoir properties. However, the filling of pores by volcanic materials of multiple origins and varying distributions deteriorates reservoir quality, with diagenetic processes further impacting the reservoir properties of specific stratigraphic intervals.

3. The reservoir conditions of the braided river delta facies in the Enping Formation of the Huizhou 26 Depression are generally favorable. It is recommended to prioritize regions with minimal volcanic influence above the lower depth limit. In contrast, the fan delta facies exhibits overall poorer reservoir quality, necessitating further research on reworking processes and the identification of high-quality reservoir zones associated with intense reworking.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

GP: Methodology, Writing – review and editing, Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. PL: Methodology, Formal Analysis, Writing – review and editing, Conceptualization. ML: Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – review and editing. PS: Writing – review and editing, Formal Analysis. HL: Writing – review and editing, Software, Formal Analysis. XL: Writing – review and editing, Software, Visualization. WW: Writing – review and editing, Software, Visualization. SY: Writing – review and editing, Software, Visualization. BH: Writing – review and editing, Visualization, Software.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. Shenzhen Branch of CNOOC (SCKY-2024-SZ-06).

Conflict of interest

Authors GP, PL, ML, PS, HL, XL, WW, SY and BH were employed by Shenzhen Branch of CNOOC.

Authors GP, PL, ML, PS, HL, XL, WW, SY and BH were employed by CNOOC Deepwater Development Limited.

The author(s) declared that this work received funding from Shenzhen Branch of CNOOC. The funder had the following involvement in the study: collection.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was used in the creation of this manuscript. The author(s) verify and take full responsibility for the use of generative AI for language improvement in the preparation of this manuscript.

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Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1682739/full#supplementary-material

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