Mária Ganajová
Renáta Orosová2
Ivana Sotáková
Petra Letošnı́ková- 1Department of Chemistry Didactics, Faculty of Science, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
- 2Department of Education, Faculty of Arts, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
Introduction: The research aim was to identify the impact of IBSE in teaching science subjects (biology, physics, and chemistry) on students' attitudes to these subjects, as well as science and technology in general.
Methods: The systematic literature review, conducted in accordance with the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology, involved an analysis of systematic reviews and empirical studies published between 2015 and 2025. The qualitative meta-analysis focused on the implementation of IBSE in STEM education, examining its effectiveness and impact on students' attitudes toward science subjects, the perceived difficulty and usefulness of these subjects, trust in science, the perceived societal contribution of science and technology, and students' career ambitions in this field. The empirical part of this study presents research conducted with first-year students from five Slovak grammar schools over a 3-month period (November to January) during the 2022/2023 school year. A one-group pre-test–post-test design was used. The research sample consisted of 151 students. The intervention comprised 24 lessons and included 12 inquiry-based activities designed according to the 5E model (Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, Evaluate). These activities were implemented in teaching three science subjects—physics, chemistry, and biology. A scale questionnaire developed within the ESTABLISH project was used to assess students' attitudes toward science subjects, as well as science and technology, before and after the intervention.
Results: After completing the inquiry-based activities, students' attitudes toward science subjects increased significantly across all five subscales. They reported stronger emotional engagement with science subjects (Subscale A; strong effect) and perceived them as less difficult and more useful (Subscale B; strong effect). With regard to science and technology, students expressed greater appreciation of their societal relevance (Subscale C; strong effect), demonstrated increased trust and fewer critical reservations toward scientific knowledge and processes (Subscale D; medium effect), and showed stronger professional aspirations within the field of science and technology (Subscale E; medium to strong effect).
Discussion: To enhance students' understanding of the importance of science and technology, additional tasks focusing on STEM and global challenges such as digitalization, climate change, and artificial intelligence should be incorporated into inquiry-based activities.
1 Introduction
In Slovakia, as well as across Europe, there has been a long-term shortage of qualified experts in the area of technology and the related services (European Commission, 2024; European Labour Authority, 2024; Pavelka and Majherová, 2019). Therefore, many countries support science, technology, and technical education. Although many activities are being implemented in this area and investments are substantial, empirical evidence of their positive impact is still limited (Bernard et al., 2019; Harlen, 2021; Pavelka and Majherová, 2019).
Students' interest in studying science and technology is influenced by their attitudes toward science and technology (Archer et al., 2020; Fitzgerald et al., 2024; Potvin and Hasni, 2014; Tai et al., 2022). These attitudes are influenced by various factors, such as age, gender, teaching methods, and parents' or peers' attitudes (Archer et al., 2020; Koyunlu Unlu and Dokme, 2022; Meulenbroeks et al., 2024).
Research conducted in Slovakia has shown that low interest in science and technical education is influenced by teaching methods, parents, and social networks (Bellová et al., 2021; Pavelka and Majherová, 2019). In addition to low interest in technical careers, the Slovak education system has shown persistently low levels of scientific literacy (Lieskovský and Sunyı́k, 2022). Aditomo and Klieme (2020) point out that students' attitudes toward science subjects may significantly influence their understanding of science and learning outcomes. This relationship between affective and cognitive learning outcomes has also been confirmed by more recent studies (Arifin et al., 2025; Meulenbroeks et al., 2024).
Inquiry-Based Science Education (IBSE) is grounded in questioning, exploring phenomena, experimenting, and drawing conclusions, and is regarded as one of the most effective pedagogical approaches for supporting STEM education (Lai, 2018). STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) represents an integrated approach to learning that connects scientific, technical, engineering, and mathematical disciplines with the aim of developing critical thinking, creativity, technical skills, and the ability to solve complex problems (Kelley and Knowles, 2016). This approach prepares students to address the challenges and make use of the opportunities of today's world, in which science and technology play a key role.
IBSE supports the integration of science subjects with technology, engineering, and mathematics, thereby developing students' ability to apply their knowledge in real-life contexts. It also helps students understand the societal consequences of scientific and technological progress. Empirical studies also indicate that the systematic integration of STEM and IBSE contributes to higher motivation and sustained interest in science and technology careers, as well as improving students' attitudes toward science (Attard et al., 2021; Ribeirinha et al., 2024; van Wyk et al., 2025; Teplá and Distler, 2025).
An IBSE-based educational environment demonstrably increases students' motivation and engagement by providing greater autonomy, responsibility for learning, and opportunities to explore scientific questions through practical activities (Meulenbroeks et al., 2024; Varoglu et al., 2023).
However, despite considerable support for IBSE, many countries still lack convincing evidence of its positive impact on shaping grammar school students' attitudes toward science and technology (Harlen, 2021; Sjøberg, 2019; Strat et al., 2023). Therefore, this study aims to identify the impact of IBSE on grammar school students' attitudes toward science subjects as well as science and technology in general.
This study had a two-phase design. The first phase of the research consisted of a systematic review and a qualitative meta-analysis of both international and Slovak studies published between 2015 and 2025, focusing on the implementation and evaluation of the effectiveness of IBSE in teaching, its integration with STEM education, and the impact of IBSE on the affective dimensions of learning. The second phase consisted of empirical research conducted in Slovak grammar schools, focusing on the implementation of IBSE in the teaching of science subjects (chemistry, physics, and biology) and on evaluating its impact on students' attitudes toward science subjects, science, and technology.
For the effective implementation of IBSE within STEM education, several factors are crucial—adequate teacher preparation, high-quality didactic design of activities, integration of technology, and an assessment system that supports the development of higher cognitive and metacognitive skills (Aguilera and Perales-Palacios, 2020).
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Systematic review
2.1.1 Search strategy
In the first phase of the research, a systematic review of the scientific literature was carried out. The search for relevant sources was conducted according to the PRISMA methodology (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), which provides a structured framework for the systematic collection, selection, and synthesis of scientific studies (Page et al., 2021). For this purpose, four databases were used—Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, and the national academic database CREPC (Central Register of Publication Activity). These databases were selected for their extensive coverage of systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and empirical studies on IBSE, including within STEM education. The selection focused primarily on studies examining the impact of IBSE on the affective dimensions of learning.
2.1.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
The systematic review included the existing systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and empirical studies that met the following criteria:
• focused on the implementation or effectiveness of IBSE in teaching, including within STEM education;
• focused on the affective dimensions of learning such as students' attitudes toward science subjects, the perceived difficulty and usefulness of these subjects, trust in science, the perceived societal contribution of science and technology, and students' career ambitions in this field;
• contained empirical data or analytical findings based on evidence;
• published in peer-reviewed scientific journals.
The following works were excluded from the systematic review:
• concerned exclusively with university education;
• did not contain empirical data or did not provide information on the methodology of IBSE implementation (e.g., the inquiry learning model used, teaching strategies, and the method of evaluating its effectiveness);
• or were published outside the defined time frame (2015–2025).
All identified records were organized into a tabular overview for screening and analysis, with duplicate records subsequently removed manually.
2.1.3 Search terms
During the search process, keywords relevant to the research topic were used. These keywords and their combinations used included:
(“Inquiry-Based Science Education” AND STEM)
OR (“Inquiry-Based Learning” AND STEM)
OR (“Impact of Inquiry-Based Learning” AND “Student Attitudes”)
OR (“Affective Learning Outcomes” AND (“Science” OR “Technology”))
OR (“Effectiveness” AND “Inquiry-Based Instruction”)
OR (“Attitudes toward Science” OR “Attitudes toward Science Subjects”)
OR (“Career Aspirations” OR “Career Ambitions” AND (“STEM” OR “Science and Technology”))
In addition, synonymous expressions such as “student engagement in science” and “science motivation” were used to ensure comprehensive coverage of relevant systematic reviews and empirical studies.
2.1.4 Data synthesis and PRISMA flow summary
The analysis was conducted in the form of a systematic review with a qualitative meta-analysis, which enabled the synthesis of findings from multiple independent studies and the identification of common trends, success factors, and patterns of IBSE implementation within STEM education, as well as its impact on affective learning outcomes.
The PRISMA flow summary (Table 1) illustrates the individual stages of the procedure—identification, screening, assessment of eligibility, and the final selection of studies included in the analysis. The summary provides the number of records identified in each database, the number of works excluded after the removal of duplicates, and the number of studies that met the specified inclusion criteria.
Table 1. PRISMA flow summary for the systematic review of studies.
2.1.5 Results of the systematic review and meta-analysis
The results of the systematic review are presented in Table 2. Table 2 summarizes the results of the content analysis of scientific studies, which were divided into five thematic categories according to the keywords used in the search.
Table 2. Summary of results from the systematic review and meta-analysis.
The results of the analysis indicate that inquiry-based science education (IBSE) has a demonstrably positive impact on the affective dimensions of learning. Several empirical and meta-analytical studies confirm that IBSE fosters positive student attitudes toward science subjects, increases their intrinsic motivation and interest in scientific and technical topics, as well as their trust in science and perception of its social significance (Aguilera and Perales-Palacios, 2020; Bezen and Bayrak, 2020; Manishimwe et al., 2022; Meulenbroeks et al., 2024). Several studies also point out that the systematic integration of IBSE within STEM education contributes to the development of students' scientific identity, strengthens their confidence in scientific work, and shapes professional aspirations in the fields of science and technology (Fitzgerald et al., 2024; Jiang et al., 2024; Ozkul and Ozden, 2020).
Other studies confirm that the effectiveness of IBSE is strongly conditioned by the level of teacher guidance and support (scaffolding). Guided forms of inquiry-based teaching lead to greater cognitive and affective benefits compared to completely open inquiry without teacher support (Aditomo and Klieme, 2020; Kang and Keinonen, 2017; Lazonder and Harmsen, 2016; Savelsbergh et al., 2016; Teplá and Distler, 2025).
2.2 Empirical research
2.2.1 Research aim, questions, and hypotheses
The research goal was to identify the impact of IBSE in teaching science subjects (chemistry, physics, and biology) on students' attitudes to these subjects, as well as science and technology in general.
Based on this goal, the following research questions were formulated:
RQ1: Do students' relationships with science subjects improve after being taught using inquiry-based activities?
H01 : There is no statistically significant difference in students' affective relationships with science subjects before and after being taught through inquiry-based activities.
H11 : There is a statistically significant difference in students' affective relationships with science subjects before and after being taught through inquiry-based activities.
RQ2: Do students' perceptions of the difficulty and usefulness of science subjects change after being taught using inquiry-based activities?
H02: There is no statistically significant difference in students' perception of the difficulty and usefulness of science subjects before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
H12: There is a statistically significant difference in students' perception of the difficulty and usefulness of science subjects before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
RQ3: Does students' recognition of the societal importance of science and technology change after being taught using inquiry-based activities?
H03: There is no statistically significant difference in students' recognition of the societal importance of science and technology before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
H13: There is a statistically significant difference in students' recognition of the societal importance of science and technology before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
RQ4: Does inquiry-based teaching affect students' trust in science, and does it reduce their critical attitudes toward it?
H04: There is no statistically significant difference in students' trust in science and their critical attitudes toward it before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
H14: There is a statistically significant difference in students' trust in science and their critical attitudes toward it before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
RQ5: Does students' interest in a future career in science and technology increase as a result of being taught using inquiry-based activities?
H05: There is no statistically significant difference in students' interest in a future career in science and technology before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
H15: There is a statistically significant difference in students' interest in a future career in science and technology before and after being taught using inquiry-based activities.
2.2.2 Research design
A quasi-experimental, one-group pre-test—post test research design (Cohen et al., 2007) was used in this research. The one-group pre-test—post-test research design is mostly implemented by social scientists, for example, to evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs or curricula (Cranmer, 2017; Fraenkel et al., 2011). This design is commonly used within STEM disciplines (i.e., science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) (Cranmer, 2017).
Given that the experimental group consisted of five different forms, the Kruskal–Wallis test was used in the pre-test to verify their comparability before the intervention. The resulting values (p>0.05) showed that no statistically significant differences were observed between the forms, which confirms their baseline comparability.
At the beginning of the research, students were administered a pre-test, i.e., questionnaire aimed at identifying their attitudes toward science subjects as well as science and technology. Subsequently, within the designated time period, the experimental intervention took place—students participated in instruction involving inquiry-based activities. After instruction, students were administered a post-test identical to the pre-test.
The research design can be seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1. One group pre-test – post-test design.
Within the research, independent and dependent variables were identified. The independent variable was the implementation of inquiry-based science education (IBSE). The dependent variables were students' attitudes toward science subjects and their attitudes toward science and technology, measured using a scale questionnaire before (pre-test) and after the intervention (post-test).
2.2.3 Participants
The characteristics of the participating schools, teachers, and student groups are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Characteristics of participants.
Deliberate sampling was used to select the research sample. Five Slovak grammar schools participated in the research conducted during the first term of the 2022/2023 school year (November 2022–January 2023).
The selection of schools and teachers was deliberate and followed the following criteria. Firstly, schools inclined toward innovation, whose management promoted active learning, were selected.
Secondly, schools whose teachers actively participated in the IT Academy – Education for the 21st Century project (http://itakademia.sk/) and expressed their interest in implementing IBSE into their teaching were selected. In terms of this project, the teachers had an opportunity to get acquainted with a variety of inquiry activities. Based on these criteria, 10 teachers of science subjects (chemistry, physics, biology) were selected for the research: all women with more than 10-year of teaching practice.
Group equivalence was ensured through the application of identical selection criteria. Students at the selected schools had no prior experience with IBSE, thereby eliminating any potential influence of previous exposure on the outcomes.
The participating schools were located in three different cities in the eastern region of Slovakia: Prešov, Košice, and Spišská Nová Ves. The teaching conditions were comparable across all schools. Teaching conditions were comparable across all schools, including uniform access to materials and technological equipment (technical devices, laboratory tools, and teaching resources), consistent class sizes (30–31 students), and a standardized organization of science instruction (biology, chemistry, and physics). In accordance with the State Educational Program, the time allocation for each of these subjects in the first year of grammar school is three lessons per week. Additionally, every other week, classes were split for laboratory exercises.
Each school allowed one 1st year class to participate in the research. The research sample consisted of 151 students in total. 74 (49%) participants were male and 77 (51%) female. The students were aged 15–16.
The students who participated in this research benefited from favorable learning conditions. Most of their parents had attained secondary or tertiary education, providing a stable socioeconomic background and supportive environment for academic achievement. Over the long term, students at these grammar schools demonstrated strong academic performance, with approximately 98% successfully passing the school-leaving examination and around 90% continuing to university studies.
These factors were evenly distributed across all experimental classrooms, ensuring that the research sample was balanced and comparable.
2.2.4 Preparation of inquiry activities
Inquiry-based activities for science (chemistry, physics, and biology) were developed as part of the IT Academy – Education for the 21st Century national project (http://itakademia.sk/) in line with the state educational program for grammar schools (NIE, 2014). This project was built upon the knowledge and activities of the ESTABLISH (European Science and Technology in Action: Building Links with Industry, Schools and Home, www.establish-fp7.eu) project. The inquiry-based activities were designed by teachers of chemistry, physics, and biology didactics at the Faculty of Science, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice. In Slovakia, these activities are available in Inquiry-Based Activities in Science Education – Chemistry, Physics, Biology (Ganajová and Kristofová, 2016; Kimaková, 2016; Kireš and Ješková, 2016), and Collections of Innovative Chemistry, Physics, and Biology Methods for Secondary Schools (Ganajová et al., 2021; Ješková et al., 2021; Mišianiková et al., 2021).
In terms of the presented research, 12 inquiry-based activities were implemented in teaching science subjects (chemistry, physics, and biology) (Table 4). These inquiry-based activities were in line with the state educational program for the first year of grammar schools (NIE, 2014); they were implemented during a 3-month period (November 2022– January 2023). The activities were created according to the 5E Educational Model (Bybee, 2015, 2019) and focused on various levels of inquiry according to the hierarchy designed in the Establish project (ESTABLISH, 2011).
Table 4. A list of the inquiry-based activities implemented in teaching chemistry, physics, and biology.
The 5E Educational model represents a five-phase learning cycle in which students first activate their prior knowledge and curiosity (Engage), then investigate and experiment (Explore), formulate and justify their explanations and conclusions (Explain), apply the newly acquired knowledge in various contexts (Elaborate), and finally reflect on and evaluate both the process and the outcomes of their learning (Evaluate).
The levels of inquiry, as defined in the hierarchy developed within the ESTABLISH project, include interactive demonstration, guided discovery, guided inquiry, bounded inquiry, and open inquiry. Each level progressively leads students toward greater independence, fosters their active participation in the inquiry process, and enhances their ability to think and work like scientists.
2.2.4.1 Pedagogical content knowledge for individual units
Chemistry: Various materials were tested to determine their suitability as filters – specifically, whether they contain holes (pores) and whether those pores differ in size. The inquiry-based activities focus on the chemical structure of substances and the resulting properties. In these activities, students investigate the presence of pores in different materials on macroscopic, microscopic, and sub-microscopic levels. They begin by examining visible pores (e.g., gauze, paper coffee filters) and progress to exploring invisible pores in materials such as cling film or dialysis membranes. Through observation, students discover that filters and semipermeable membranes vary in pore size, which affects their practical applications – for example, in dialysis or separation processes. A particularly engaging activity is the Detective Story, where students apply their knowledge of substance separation to solve a fictional murder case.
Physics: This unit provides inquiry-based activities to support the teaching and learning of Direct Electric Circuits through exploratory methods. Students learn to design and construct simple circuits using batteries, bulbs, wires, and switches. They come to understand the distinction between conductive and non-conductive materials and explore models of electrical conductivity, including series and parallel resistor connections. The unit also introduces the basic principles of electrochemical cells and voltage generation, guiding students in identifying material combinations that produce electricity. Furthermore, they learn to differentiate between rechargeable and non-rechargeable batteries. The unit is enhanced by a range of ready-to-use ICT activities, where sensors for voltage and current, combined with an interface and software, are used to measure physical quantities and analyse the results.
Biology: The Blood Donation unit links to the circulatory and respiratory systems. It builds on prior knowledge of blood circulation, heart function, and gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. Here, students learn about additional properties and functions of blood through practical tasks, information retrieval, and data interpretation. The focus is on blood characteristics, the process of donation, and the safety requirements for transfusion. Students are encouraged to search for information independently, organize and present findings, work collaboratively, and assume the roles of various specialists. They also become familiar with tools used in blood collection and storage. A more detailed description of the IBSE teaching principles and their implementation across chemistry, physics, and biology inquiry activities follows.
2.2.4.2 Linking inquiry-based activities to STEM areas
Inquiry-based activities connect scientific knowledge with industry, technology, and everyday life in the following ways:
In chemistry, the activities (Observation and Explanation of Filters, Membranes with Invisible Pores, Dialysis) focus on understanding the structure and properties of substances, while students connect microscopic and macroscopic observations with practical and industrial applications. These observations lead to an understanding of the principles of filtration and substance separation, which are applied in the chemical and food industries, healthcare (e.g., dialysis), environmental technologies (e.g., water purification), and everyday life. The activity Crime Story develops critical and analytical thinking through the application of chemical knowledge in the context of forensic science, thereby linking chemistry, biology, and technology.
In physics, the activities (Electric Current, Battery and Bulb; What Materials Conduct Electric Current?; Build Your Own Battery) focus on the practical construction and testing of electrical circuits. Students experiment with the conductivity of materials and learn to use digital technologies and sensors to measure and analyze electrical quantities. The activity' Introduction to Conductivity and Electric Circuits' complements inquiry and exploration through the visualization of physical principles and supports the understanding of circuit operation.
In biology, the activities (Study Visit at a Transfusion Center, Determining Blood Types, Separating Blood Constituents) combine biological, medical, and technological aspects. Students explore the properties and functions of blood, learn about the principles of biotechnological and medical processes, and develop scientific literacy, cooperation, and ethical awareness in relation to the application of science in society. At the same time, they become familiar with materials and technologies used in medicine—for example, polymers and metals employed in the production of devices for the collection, processing, transport, and storage of blood. They also learn about special polymers that enable the long-term preservation of blood and tissues at low temperatures by protecting cells from damage caused by the formation of ice crystals.
Activities designed in this way create a link between theory and practice, demonstrate the real-world application of STEM knowledge, and develop students' ability to inquire, experiment, and solve problems in interdisciplinary contexts.
2.2.4.3 Students as researchers
The worksheet tasks were designed to actively engage students: they observed phenomena (Activities Phy 3 and Bio 1), searched for information online (Activity Chem 4), conducted measurements and experiments (Activities Chem 1, Chem 2, Phy 2, Phy 4, and Bio 3), and devised procedures to verify or refute their hypotheses. In all activities, students analyzed collected data, drew conclusions from their observations, or examined various objects and processes (e.g., Activities Chem 3, Chem 4, Phy 3, Phy 4, Bio 4). These activities fostered not only inquiry skills but also the development of 4C competences: critical thinking, communication, cooperation, and creativity. Through discussions and presentations of their experimental results, students also enhanced their communication skills.
2.2.5 Teacher preparation and teaching with inquiry activities
In October 2022, a 3-h training session was conducted for teachers participating in the research. During a workshop, they were introduced to the inquiry-based activities designed for this study and learned how to implement them in their teaching. Before implementation, teachers were allowed to modify the activities at their discretion. The instruction was provided by the teachers of chemistry, physics, and biology didactics at the Faculty of Science, Pavol Jozef šafárik University in Košice.
Inquiry-based teaching was carried out during the first term of the 2022/2023 school year, spanning 3 months from November 2022 to January 2023. The experiment included chemistry, physics, and biology lessons (Table 4). It comprised 12 inquiry-based activities implemented every other week.
At the start of each lesson, teachers sought to motivate students to ensure high levels of engagement. They focused particularly on posing questions, which play a crucial role in fostering understanding. For active learning to occur, teachers must ask students questions, students must ask their teachers, and students must also question each other. Teachers' questions were designed to encourage student cooperation as well. Thanks to specialized training, teachers understood which inquiry skills were targeted in each unit, the time constraints involved, the materials required, and appropriate methods of evaluation. Each worksheet was accompanied by formative assessment tools intended to provide feedback on teaching, for example, exit cards or student self-assessment forms completed after the inquiry activity. The exit card included questions such as: What did we do? Why did we do it? What have I learned today? How can I use this knowledge? Do I still have any questions about the topic?. This formative feedback helped teachers identify both strengths and areas for improvement in their teaching, refine their approach, and adapt future instruction accordingly.
2.2.6 Instrument
The questionnaire was used to identify the attitudes of the students toward science subjects and science and technology before and after being taught with inquiry activities (hereinafter referred to as pre-test and post-test). The attitudes were identified using a questionnaire from the ESTABLISH project (Kekule and Žák, 2014). The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first part focused on the basic information on the student respondents. The second part included 10 items focused on students' attitudes toward science subjects. The third part included 15 items focused on students' attitudes toward science and technology. The students expressed their attitudes using a 4-point Likert scale (1—strongly disagree; 2—disagree; 3—agree; 4—strongly agree). The recommended time for completing the questionnaire is 40 min.
According to several studies in the field of science education and attitudes toward science (e.g., ROSE – The Relevance of Science Education, PISA Science Framework, STEBI—Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument, as well as studies on trust in science, such as Allum et al. (2008); Lederman et al. (2014); (Sjøberg and Schreiner 2010); OECD (2016), attitudes toward science are usually categorized into four to five main areas:
1. Affective component (interest, popularity, positive emotions)
2. Cognitive components (perceived difficulty, usefulness, manageability)
3. Normative/value component (credibility, societal importance, impact)
4. Social perceptions of science (scientist stereotypes, trust, criticism)
5. Career orientation (interest in science/tech profession)
This categorization was used in the presented research. Individual questionnaire items were divided into 5 subscales.
Subscale A: Affective relationship to science subjects (5 items)
It includes items focused on interest and popularity.
1. Science subjects are interesting.
2. I prefer science subjects over most other subjects.
3. I would like to have as many science subjects at school as possible.
4. Science subjects have made me appreciate nature even more.
5. Science subjects have sparked my curiosity about things that are yet to be explained.
Subscale B: Perceived difficulty and usefulness of science subjects (5 items)
Items reflecting difficulty and practical use.
1. Science subjects are difficult. (reverse)
2. I find science subjects quite easy.
3. What I learn in science subjects at school will be useful in my everyday life.
4. Science subjects have taught me how to better care for my health.
5. I think all students should study science subjects at school.
Subscale C: Perceived societal contribution of science and technology (8 items)
Items reflecting the plausibility and usefulness of science and technology for society.
1. Science and technology are important for society.
2. Science and technology will find cures for diseases such as HIV/AIDS and cancer.
3. Our lives are healthier, easier, and more convenient because of science and technology.
4. Science and technology will help eliminate poverty and hunger in the world.
5. Science and technology have the potential to solve most problems.
6. Science and technology help the poor.
7. Every country needs science and technology for development.
8. Work will be more interesting thanks to the new technology.
Subscale D: Critical opinions and trust in science (4 items)
Items reflecting environmental concerns, perceived fairness (perceived justice in the impacts of science and technology), and stereotypes about scientists.
1. Science and technology are responsible for most ecological problems. (reverse)
2. Science and technology mostly help the developed countries. (reverse)
3. We should always trust scientists' opinions.
4. Scientists are neutral and objective.
Subscale E: Professional ambitions in science and technology (3 items)
Items reflecting identification with science and future profession.
1. I would like to become a scientist.
2. I would like to pursue a career in technology.
3. Science subjects have helped me understand the importance of science in our daily lives.
Validity and reliability of the questionnaire
Construct validity was assessed using exploratory factor analysis (principal component analysis with varimax rotation). The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Test and Bartlett's Sphericity Test were used to assess the suitability of the analysis. The KMO test for sampling adequacy yielded a result of 0.691, which is relatively low but still within the acceptable range for factor analysis (Hutcheson and Sofroniou, 1999). The Bartlett's Sphericity Test refuted the hypothesis that the correlation matrix was a unit matrix (p < 0.001). These test results confirmed that exploratory factor analysis was appropriate for identifying the instrument's dimensionality and assessing the suitability of the questionnaire items for further analysis. The communality coefficient was used as a criterion for item suitability, and the minimum factor loading required for item inclusion was 0.40. A parallel analysis was conducted to confirm dimensionality, identifying the two-factor model as the optimal solution for the analyzed questionnaire version.
The reliability and internal consistency of the research instrument (questionnaire)—including relationships among its items and between individual items and the instrument as a whole—were assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficient (Cronbach, 1951).
The questionnaire showed very good reliability, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of α= 0.891, which exceeded the minimum acceptable value of α= 0.700. The instrument proved to be highly reliable. The reliability of the five subscales (A–E) had the following Cronbach's alpha values:
Subscale A: Affective relationship to science subjects, α= 0.841
Subscale B: Perceived difficulty and usefulness of science subjects, α= 0.784
Subscale C: Perceived societal contribution of science and technology, α= 0.873
Subscale D: Critical opinions and trust in science, α= 0.712
Subscale E: Professional ambitions in science and technology, α= 0.754
In all cases, correlations between individual items and the overall score exceeded the threshold of 0.50. Therefore, all items were suitable for further analysis, and none needed to be removed. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient indicated a strong correlation between the subscales (p < 0.001). Both the factor analysis results and Cronbach's alpha coefficients indicated that the individual subscales were internally consistent.
2.2.7 Data analysis
The normality of the data distribution was tested for the overall questionnaire score, for individual items separately, as well as for items grouped into subscales, using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. In all cases, the value of p < 0.05 indicated that the obtained data did not follow a normal distribution. Since the same group of respondents was involved, which did not change during the research and consisted of five forms, the data obtained before and after the intervention were paired. For this reason, the non-parametric Wilcoxon test for paired values was used, as it is suitable for comparing two measurements within the same group, particularly when the assumption of normality of the data distribution is not met (Field, 2013; Laerd Statistics, 2021). For all statistical analyses, a value of p < 0.05 was considered significant.
The data were processed using descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) and inferential statistics. To verify statistically significant differences between the pre-test and post-test, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired values was used, with significance assessed at the level of p < 0.05. To assess the practical (not only statistical) significance of the observed differences, the effect size coefficient r (Cohen, 1988) was also calculated, which expresses the strength of the effect of the independent variable (implementation of IBSE) on the dependent variable (students' attitudes toward science subjects and toward science and technology). The value of this coefficient makes it possible to interpret the extent to which the observed difference has a real impact on students' attitudes.
All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Statistics 25.0 (Ibm, 2017).
3 Results
This section presents the results of the analysis of data obtained before and after instruction involving inquiry-based activities. The aim of the analysis was to determine whether statistically significant changes occurred in students' attitudes toward science subjects and toward science and technology.
Table 5 shows the mean values (M) and standard deviations (SD) for the individual questionnaire subscales before and after the implementation of this instruction, with the aim of identifying and analysing changes in students' attitudes.
Table 5. Results of the descriptive analysis.
The affective relationship (subscale A) shows the highest increase in the mean score (+0.46), indicating that after completing instruction with inquiry-based activities, students evaluated science subjects as more attractive and interesting. Subscales B and C recorded the same increase in the mean score (+0.43), indicating an improvement in the perceived manageability of science subjects and greater recognition among students of the importance of science and technology for society. Critical views and trust (subscale D) shifted more moderately (+0.25), indicating some reconsideration by students, with their trust in science increasing slightly. Professional ambitions (subscale E) increased in mean score by +0.46, which is a significant positive indicator that instruction with inquiry-based activities supports the development of science identity and a possible orientation of students toward a future career in science or technology.
The changes in mean score values across all subscales are consistent and positive, confirming the positive impact of instruction with inquiry-based activities on a wide spectrum of students' attitudes (on various aspects of attitudes).
Table 6 summarizes the results of the inferential statistical analysis of changes in students' attitudes after instruction with inquiry-based activities. To compare the scores before and after the intervention, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired values was used. All differences between the pre-test and post-test were statistically significant (p < 0.05).
Table 6. Changes in attitude after the intervention—Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
All subscales of the questionnaire showed statistically significant positive changes after instruction with inquiry-based activities, confirming the positive impact of this approach on students' attitudes toward science and technology. The most pronounced increase occurred in subscale A—Affective relationship to science subjects (Z = −9.04; p=0.003; r= 0.74), indicating a strengthening of positive emotions and interest in science subjects. Significant effects were also observed in subscale B—Perceived difficulty and usefulness of science subjects (Z = −8.12; p=0.011; r=0.66) and subscale C—Perceived societal contribution of science and technology (Z = −8.94; p=0.003; r=0.73). These results indicate that students perceived science subjects as less difficult and placed greater value on the importance of science and technology for society. Subscale D—Critical views and trust improved moderately but significantly (Z = −4.98; p=0.025; r=0.41), reflecting a balanced attitude of students toward science and scientists. Subscale E—Professional ambitions in science and technology showed a medium to strong effect (Z = −6.83; p=0.018; r=0.56), indicating a stimulation of students' interest in a future career in science and technology.
The changes in attitudes were consistent, statistically significant, and reached a medium to strong effect. These findings confirm that the IBSE approach supports the development of cognitive, affective, value-related, and motivational attitudes, which are essential for maintaining long-term interest in science and technology.
Statistical testing demonstrated significant differences; therefore, the null hypotheses (H01 – H05) were rejected, and the corresponding alternative hypotheses (H11 – H15) were accepted.
4 Discussion
The findings from the systematic literature review, which constituted the first phase of the study, provided a theoretical basis for interpreting the empirical results obtained in the second phase.
The goal of the empirical part of the study was to identify the impact of inquiry-based teaching on fostering the attitudes of the 1st year grammar school students toward science subjects as well as science and technology in general. This impact was assessed through an experimental intervention. Over a 3-month period (November 2022–January 2023), students participated in 12 inquiry-based activities conducted during science lessons (chemistry, physics, and biology) (Table 4). These inquiry-based activities were conducted in accordance with the 5E model (Bybee, 2015, 2019) and incorporated various levels of inquiry (ESTABLISH, 2011).
Students' attitudes were measured using a questionnaire administered before and after the intervention (pre-test and post-test). The questionnaire comprised five subscales:
A – Affective relationship to science subjects
B – Perceived difficulty and usefulness of science subjects
C – Perceived societal contribution of science and technology
D – Critical opinions and trust in science
E – Professional ambitions in science and technology.
Students' attitudes were assessed using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly negative attitude) to 4 (strongly positive attitude).
The statistical processing and analysis of the collected data showed that the mean attitude values in the pre-test ranged from 2.88 to 3.57. After instruction involving inquiry-based activities, these values increased to a range of 3.34 to 4.00 (Table 5). The differences between the pre-test and post-test were statistically significant across all examined subscales (p < 0.05) (Table 6).
4.1 Students' attitudes toward science subjects (subscales A and B)
After instruction involving inquiry-based activities, students showed greater interest in learning science subjects (Subscale A) and perceived them as less difficult (Subscale B). These findings indicate positive changes in students' perceptions of science subjects following inquiry-based teaching. The implementation of the 5E model guides students from the exploration phase through explanation to elaboration, thereby fostering deeper understanding of scientific concepts and subsequently influencing their attitudes toward science subjects (Liu et al., 2021; Morris, 2025; Wilcox et al., 2015). Teacher-guided inquiry activities enhance students' interest and achievement, whereas open inquiry may reduce performance (Aditomo and Klieme, 2020; Kang and Keinonen, 2017). The implemented activities were focused on lower levels of inquiry, guided by the teacher, such as guided discovery and guided inquiry. The results suggest that teaching based on inquiry-based activities positively influences students' attitudes toward science subjects, which is consistent with the findings of other studies (Aguilera and Perales-Palacios, 2020; Bezen and Bayrak, 2020; Guzel, 2017; Koyunlu Unlu and Dokme, 2022; Lin et al., 2014; Manishimwe et al., 2022; Nicol et al., 2022; Potvin et al., 2017; Savelsbergh et al., 2016).
Moreover, linking inquiry-based activities with the principles and domains of STEM education results in significant improvements in students' attitudes, engagement, and achievement (Wiriani and Ardana, 2022). Since the implemented inquiry-based activities were designed in a similar way, it can be assumed that they contributed to the positive change in students' attitudes toward the significance and usefulness of science subjects in everyday life (Subscale B).
4.2 Students' attitudes toward science and technology (subscales C, D, and E)
Multiple studies have shown (Archer et al., 2020; Christensen et al., 2016; Fitzgerald et al., 2024; Jiang et al., 2024; Kier et al., 2014) confirm that students' attitudes toward science and technology are strongly influenced by the implementation of activating strategies and methods, such as inquiry-based learning, project-based learning, and problem-based learning, in the teaching process. Research by Akcay and Yager (2016); Lazonder and Harmsen (2016); Unal and Unal (2019) focused on IBL as well as students' attitudes and learning outcomes, yielded similar results. Their results have shown that students engaged in IBL developed more positive attitudes toward science. On the other hand, some research (Oba and Lawrence, 2014; Maxwell et al., 2015) indicates that IBL has not led to any significant change in students' attitudes toward science.
After instruction with inquiry-based activities, students regarded science and technology as important tools for addressing problems in society (subscale C). The inquiry-based activities focused on specific scientific topics and their applications. This helped students to realize more easily that science enables us to find answers and solutions to complex problems. Similar findings have also been confirmed by Attard et al. (2021); (Darling-Hammond et al. 2019); Lai (2018); Melville (2015); Strat et al. (2023), who state that IBSE can improve students' attitudes toward the importance of science and technology in addressing societal problems.
Although a statistically significant positive effect was demonstrated in our research, we believe that it could have been even stronger if the inquiry-based activities had included topics explicitly highlighting the broader societal context of science and technology (e.g., the development of medicines for serious diseases, health and quality of life, the elimination of poverty and hunger in the world). The effect could be further strengthened by incorporating topics into the inquiry-based activities that focus on new discoveries in healthcare, innovations in renewable energy, the sustainable economy, and environmental monitoring. Particularly relevant is the need to reflect the growing importance of artificial intelligence (AI) in the development and application of new technologies – for example, in drug development, healthcare optimization, or in the prediction and resolution of global problems such as poverty, hunger, and environmental crises (Bajwa et al., 2021; Goralski and Tan, 2023).
Although the overall results in subscale D—Critical views and trust indicate positive changes in students' attitudes, students' belief that they should always trust the opinions of scientists and regard them as neutral and objective showed a medium effect. This may result from the way the role of scientists in society is currently perceived by the public (Cologna et al., 2025). Students' perceptions of scientists may also be influenced by the way science and scientists are portrayed in the media (D'Addezio and Besker, 2024). Students often associate the concept of “being a scientist” with experimental laboratory work, which they do not find appealing. As a result, relatively few secondary school students aspire to become scientists (Archer et al., 2020; Hamlyn et al., 2020).
After instruction with inquiry-based activities, students realized that science and technology can also have negative impacts, particularly on the environment (subscale D). Students often learn this information, such as about ecological disasters, from the media. Therefore, the teacher should explain to students that science and technology also play a key role in addressing the consequences of such disasters. This represents a challenge for the implementation of environmentally oriented tasks into inquiry-based activities (Yli-Panula et al., 2023).
A significant change in attitudes was also recorded in subscale E—Professional ambitions in science and technology. It could potentially motivate students to pursue careers in science and technology, as pointed out by other researchers (Archer et al., 2020; Christensen et al., 2016; Fitzgerald et al., 2024; Jiang et al., 2024; Kier et al., 2014). Through inquiry-based activities (e.g., Study visit at a transfusion center, Observation and explanation of filters), students had the opportunity to meet experts from both professional practice and scientific institutions. This experience may have contributed to increasing their interest in science and a possible scientific career. This tendency has been confirmed by research (Akcay and Akcay, 2015; Fitzgerald et al., 2024; Odom and Bell, 2015).
Several studies also confirm that inquiry-oriented activities increase interest in future careers in STEM fields (Attard et al., 2021; Kang and Keinonen, 2017; Wang et al., 2021). Other research similarly reports that the implementation of inquiry-based activities within STEM education significantly enhanced secondary school students' interest in science and their professional ambitions in STEM disciplines (Ribeirinha et al., 2024; van Wyk et al., 2025).
Another positive finding is that students recognized the potential of new technologies to make their future professional activity more engaging. This attitude may indicate a favorable perception of innovation and technological progress as an integral part of modern scientific research. In the future, such a view could serve as a basis for shaping greater trust in scientists, that they act in the best interest of society and bring significant benefits to it.
5 Conclusions
The study used a two-phase design that integrated a systematic review of literature focused on the implementation and effectiveness of inquiry-based science education (IBSE) in the context of STEM education and its impact on affective dimensions of learning, with an empirical examination of the effects of IBSE on the attitudes of grammar school students' toward science subjects as well as toward science and technology in general.
The results of the empirical research indicate that inquiry-based teaching was efficient in fostering students' attitudes toward science subjects as well as toward science and technology in general.
Inquiry-based activities were implemented in teaching three science subjects – physics, chemistry, and biology. In terms of content, the activities were designed to stimulate students' interest, support active learning, and subsequently promote deeper conceptual understanding. Such a focus of the inquiry-based activities resulted in significant positive changes in students' attitudes toward science subjects and toward science and technology.
After the intervention, students perceived science subjects as less difficult and showed greater interest in their study/learning. They were more aware of the usefulness of science subjects and their importance for everyday life.
Similarly, positive changes were demonstrated in students' attitudes toward the contribution of science and technology to solving societal problems, supporting economic development, and the role and trustworthiness of scientists in society. Since new STEM-related jobs will need to be filled in the future, it is important to improve students' perception of the importance of science and technology in a broader social context. Therefore, it is appropriate to integrate more tasks into teaching that are oriented toward STEM and global challenges, such as digitalization, global environmental issues, climate change, and the development of artificial intelligence. These topics represent key challenges not only for the content but also for the methods of education.
Given the expected increase in demand for STEM professionals, future research should focus on analyzing the factors influencing students' career decisions—from secondary school study to career choice. Such research may contribute to a deeper understanding of the connections between the formation of professional preferences and the actual choice of a career in science and technology. Since students often have limited knowledge of the various career opportunities arising from the study of science, they do not realize the wide range of professional prospects in fields such as environmental sciences, data analysis, biotechnology, engineering, science communication, and many others.
In this context, it will be essential to restructure the curriculum so that it prepares students for the dynamically changing demands of the labor market and technological progress.
6 Limitations
The presented results may have been influenced by the following factors.
Before the actual implementation of the research, the teachers completed training. The teachers who participated in the research had access to prepared inquiry-based activities for individual subjects (physics, chemistry, and biology). They implemented these activities in their teaching at their own discretion, not always strictly following the instructions provided in the methodologies. If the teachers had been required to design such activities themselves or had lacked sufficient knowledge of implementing IBSE in teaching, the statistical difference might have been less significant.
This research involved a relatively small sample of grammar school students (N= 151). However, the inquiry-based activities were applied within the same time period and on the same topics; therefore, the results provide conclusions that may support the implementation of inquiry-based activities into teaching with the aim of developing students' attitudes toward science subjects and toward science and technology.
The implementation period (3 months, 12 inquiry-based activities, 24 45-min lessons) was relatively short, and the impact of the new or different way of teaching may have been influenced by the initial enthusiasm and students' engagement, which could wane over time. Therefore, it would be appropriate for future research to focus on a two-group experiment to verify whether the impact of IBSE is stronger in terms of students' perception of the importance of science and technology.
Moreover, the questionnaire should be updated in the future to reflect the evolving role of AI in future careers within the fields of science and technology.
Data availability statement
The datasets presented in this article are not readily available because due to ethical issues, the data collected and analyzed in this study are not available to outside researchers. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to Ivana Sotáková, aXZhbmEuc290YWtvdmFAdXBqcy5zaw==.
Ethics statement
This research study respected ethical principles. Beforehand, all participants (teachers and students) were informed of their role, the time schedule, and the fact that the research results would be published. All teachers and students consented to participate in this research. The teachers as well as legal representatives of the students involved signed the informed consent form. For the purpose of statistical processing and evaluation of the data collected, all teachers and students were assigned identification codes to maintain their anonymity.
Author contributions
MG: Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Conceptualization, Resources, Project administration. RO: Data curation, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. IS: Visualization, Writing – review & editing, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Resources. PL: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Resources, Writing – review & editing, Methodology.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This study was supported by the following projects: VEGA No. 1/0051/25 “Development of the Digital Competence in Future Science Teachers”, KEGA No. 001UPJŠ-4/2023 “Implementation of Formative Assessment in Primary School Teaching with the Focus on the Digital Form”, and IPEL, VVGS UPJŠ—IPEL 2024-3405 “Innovation in Teaching the Chemistry Didactics II Course by Implementing Digital Summative Tasks and Formative Assessment Tools”.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the students and teachers who participated in the study; their willingness to contribute and share insights was greatly appreciated.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Generative AI statement
The authors declare that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2025.1708139/full#supplementary-material
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Keywords: science education, inquiry, attitudes, science subjects, science and technology, grammar school
Citation: Ganajová M, Orosová R, Sotáková I and Letošnı́ková P (2025) The effect of inquiry-based teaching on students' attitudes toward science as an academic subject as well as science and technology in general. Front. Educ. 10:1708139. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2025.1708139
Received: 18 September 2025; Revised: 05 November 2025; Accepted: 24 November 2025;
Published: 18 December 2025.
Edited by:
Álvaro Nolla, Autonomous University of Madrid, SpainReviewed by:
Shahid Hussain Wassan, Sukkur IBA University, PakistanYahia Alramamneh, Emirates College for Advanced Education, United Arab Emirates
Copyright © 2025 Ganajová, Orosová, Sotáková and Letošnı́ková. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Mária Ganajová, bWFyaWEuZ2FuYWpvdmFAdXBqcy5zaw==