Use of solid fat-tailored oleogels loaded with α-tocopherol as fat replacers to improve the nutritional profile of cookies

Introduction: Oleogels containing low candelilla wax (CLW) content (<2.5%) loaded with α-tocopherol mimic the rheological properties of butter, margarine, and partially hydrogenated fat. However, their use in food to enhance vitamin E intake remains unexplored. This study investigated CLW-based oleogels loaded with α-tocopherol, developed previously to replicate the rheological properties of butter (O _btr), margarine (O _mgn), and partially hydrogenated fat (O _hgf), as full replacements for these fats in cookies.

Methods: Doughs and cookies containing O _btr, O _mgn, or O _hgf were assessed for instrumental color, rheological, textural, and baking properties. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to investigate the clustering and similarities between oleogel-based samples and their respective reference solid fats.

Results: Doughs with oleogels exhibited a darker surface and a weaker structure compared to those with solid fats. Cookies with oleogels were darker, softer, and less crispy than those made with solid fats. Cookies with O _MGN exhibited a spread factor comparable to that of margarine, although other dimensional and textural parameters differed. PCA revealed no distinct clustering between the doughs containing oleogels and those with their respective solid fats (PC1 = 56.1%; PC2 = 28.9%). However, cookies containing oleogels clustered closely with those with partially hydrogenated fat (PC1 = 58.1%; PC2 = 38.8%), suggesting that reproducing the functional response of partially hydrogenated fat is more feasible than that of butter or margarine.

Results: Therefore, oleogels with low CLW content loaded with α-tocopherol present a promising alternative for replacing hydrogenated fats in cookies formulations.

1 Introduction

Bakery products commonly use solid fats (e.g., margarine, partially hydrogenated fats, or butter) to improve texture and taste by retaining moisture, preventing gluten formation, and incorporating air. For instance, in cookie dough, fat molecules hinder gluten and starch interactions, promoting adequate air incorporation and retention during mixing and baking, resulting in a crispy and crumbly texture (Gutiérrez-Luna et al., 2021). However, despite their functional benefits, the use of solid fats should be limited due to their adverse health effects.

The removal of partially hydrogenated fats from food products is mandatory, as they are the main source of industrial trans fatty acids, which are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, systemic inflammation, insulin resistance, and other chronic health conditions (World Health Organization, 2019). Interesterified fats, often derived from palm fat and commonly found in margarine, have also been linked to adverse effects on lipid metabolism, glucose homeostasis, and cardiovascular risk markers. These effects are attributed to the unusual distribution of palmitic acid among the sn-positions in the interesterified triacylglycerol molecule (Mills et al., 2021). Butter production has been associated with sustainability issues, including a high carbon footprint from dairy production and substantial water use for cattle farming (Bhat et al., 2022). Therefore, alternative lipid structuring technologies, such as the oleogelation, have emerged as a promising strategy to replace solid fats in food products, providing both functional and health-related benefits (Silva and Martini, 2024).

Oleogels have been used as fat replacers because they reproduce the textural and mechanical functionality of solid fats via a three-dimensional network of a gelator entrapping a liquid oil. They also retain the nutritional properties of vegetable oils, which contain unsaturated fatty acids and natural antioxidants (Tan et al., 2023). Oleogels structured with natural waxes, such as candelilla wax (CLW), rice bran wax, sunflower wax, carnauba wax, and beeswax, have been used in the production of bakery products (Flores-García et al., 2023; Li et al., 2022; Onacik-Gür and Żbikowska, 2020). However, studies on wax-based oleogels as fat replacers in bakery products typically use wax concentrations exceeding 3%, which often result in poor air incorporation, inadequate dough viscoelasticity, an unpleasant waxy mouthfeel, and increased hardness in cookies and biscuits (Flores-García et al., 2023; Onacik-Gür and Żbikowska, 2020).

Peixoto et al. (2024) recently developed oleogels that mimic the rheological properties of solid fats by using small amounts of CLW (≤2.5%) loaded with α-tocopherol (0.5%) to enhance nutritional value. Through an optimization approach, these oleogels were designed to maximize similarity to conventional fats, achieving 76%, 73%, and 58% resemblance to margarine, partially hydrogenated fat, and butter, respectively. However, their practical application in complex food systems and their potential for improving vitamin E intake remains largely unexplored.

α-Tocopherol, the most active form of vitamin E, has antioxidant, antiproliferative, pro-apoptotic, anti-angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Vitamin E is essential for human health, supporting the reproductive system, gene expression, immune function, and cell signaling, with potential therapeutic uses against chronic disease. α-Tocopherol is mainly found in vegetable oils, which are often consumed in low amounts, leading to insufficient daily intake for most people (Monto et al., 2023). Therefore, using mimetic oleogels containing α-tocopherol can help meet the nutritional and technological goals of food.

Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the functional performance of CLW-based oleogels loaded with α-tocopherol as a replacer of solid fats for manufacturing cookies. Oleogels’ formulations replicating specific rheological properties of butter (O _BTR), margarine (O _MGN), and partially hydrogenated fat (O _HGF) were tested as surrogates for these solid fats conventionally used in bakery products. The cookie doughs and baked cookies were assessed for their instrumental color, rheological, textural, and baking properties. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was employed to determine whether the oleogel-based doughs and cookies exhibited clustering patterns similar to those formulated with their respective conventional fats.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials

CLW and α-tocopherol (purity 97%) were purchased from Flora Fiora Co. (São Paulo, Brazil) and Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. (São Paulo, Brazil), respectively. Refined canola oil, butter, margarine, and partially hydrogenated vegetable fat were obtained from a local supermarket in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). The chemical composition of CLW, canola oil, and solid fats used in the present study was previously described (Peixoto et al., 2024).

2.2 Preparation of CLW based-oleogels loaded with α-tocopherol

CLW-based oleogels previously developed and characterized by Peixoto et al. (2024) were used in this study. These oleogels were designed to mimic the rheological behavior of butter, margarine, and partially hydrogenated fat and were prepared by direct dispersion following the protocol described in that work. Briefly, 50 mL of canola oil were heated to 90 °C for 10 min in a water bath with digital thermostatic control under continuous magnetic stirring. Subsequently, CLW and α-tocopherol were added to the oil phase and mixed until complete dissolution. Samples were cooled to 25 °C to promote gel network formation.

Based on a prior optimization step reported by Peixoto et al. (2024), the formulations were selected to match key rheological parameters of butter, margarine, and partially hydrogenated fat, specifically yield stress and gel-to-sol transition temperature (crossover temperature). The composition used were: (i) butter-mimicking oleogel (O _BTR), 2.1% CLW +0.5% α-tocopherol; (ii) margarine-mimicking oleogel (O _MGN), 2.3% CLW +0.5% α-tocopherol; and (iii) partially-hydrogenated fat-mimicking oleogel (O _HGF), 2.5% CLW +0.5% α-tocopherol. A comprehensive physicochemical and rheological characterization of these oleogels is provided in Peixoto et al. (2024).

2.3 Preparation of cookies

Seven cookie formulations were prepared using either oleogels (O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _HGF), their corresponding solid fat (butter, margarine, or partially hydrogenated fat), or canola oil as a fat source. Solid fats served as positive references for comparing the performance of oleogel-based cookies, while canola oil, virtually absent from solid fat and crystal network, served as a negative reference.

Cookies were prepared according to AACC Method 10-54 (ACCC, 2000), with minor modifications, using wheat flour (325 g), sugar (280 g), oil, fat or oleogel (160 g), liquid eggs (112 mL), salt (4.5 g), sodium bicarbonate (3.9 g), and vanillin extract (7 mL). Dry ingredients were manually mixed with the fat source, liquid egg, and vanilla essence until complete homogenization. After, the dough was kneaded, molded, and cut (45 mm diameter × 5 mm thickness), and weighed on average 9 g. Aliquots of cookie dough (90 g) were stored in sealed plastic bags at 4 °C until analysis. The doughs were baked at 180 °C for 10 min. Cookies were allowed to cool down at room temperature and sealed in plastic bags until analysis. Each formulation was baked in duplicate (10 cookies per batch) on the same day. Considering the sum of ingredients, the total content of CLW in unbaked cookie ranged from 34 to 40 mg for cookies made with O _BTR and O _HGF, respectively. All unbaked oleogel-based cookies contained 8 mg of α-tocopherol per unit.

2.4 Rheological properties of doughs

The viscoelastic properties of doughs were determined using a controlled-stress rheometer (AR-G2, TA Instruments^®, New Castle, DE, United States) equipped with a Peltier system for temperature control (25 °C) using a 20 mm serrated parallel plate (geometry gap = 2000 µm). A frequency sweep test was performed as a function of frequency from 0.01 to 10 Hz at the strain of 0.05%, which runs within the linear viscoelastic region (LVR) determined by a stress sweep test for all cookie dough samples (Jang et al., 2015). The elastic (G′) and viscous (G″) modulus, and the loss tangent (Tan δ, ratio of G′′/G′) were determined. Tan δ indicates whether the viscous or elastic component is predominant, where tan δ < 1.0 indicates that the elastic portion prevails, and tan δ > 1 indicates that the viscous portion is dominant (Brito et al., 2022). All analyses were performed in triplicate.

2.5 Instrumental color of doughs and cookies

The color of the doughs (n = 3) and cookies surfaces (n = 3) was measured using a Minolta CR-400 colorimeter (Konica Minolta, Osaka, Japan) with illuminant D65 and 2° viewing angle based on the CIE L*a*b* color components, determined as follows: L* (black 0 to white, 100); a* (− green to + red); and b* (− blue to + yellow) (Brito et al., 2022). The total color difference ( $\Delta$ E) was measured between doughs or cookies made with oleogels and their respective doughs or cookies made with solid fat as described in Equation 1.

$\Delta \mathrm{E}*=\sqrt{{\left(\Delta \mathrm{L}*\right)}^2+{\left(\Delta \mathrm{a}*\right)}^2+{\left(\Delta \mathrm{b}*\right)}^2}(1)$

2.6 Texture properties of doughs and cookies

Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) was conducted to assess the hardness, adhesiveness, cohesiveness, and springiness of doughs using a Texture Analyzer (TA-XT plus, Stable Microsystems, Surrey, United Kingdom). Dough samples (50 mm diameter × 7 mm height) were placed on the analyzer’s plate and compressed to 50% of their initial height on a tray with a cylindrical probe (P36/R, 36 mm diameter) attached to a 5 kg compression load cell. Two sequential compression tests were performed with pre-test, during-test, and post-test speeds of 2.0, 2.0, and 10 mm/s, respectively (Hwang et al., 2016). The hardness and crispness of cookies were measured by penetration texture analysis using the same equipment, with speeds of 2.0, 2.0, and 3.0 mm/s, for the pre-test, during-test, and post-test, respectively. The trigger force was set to 0.01 kg, with the trigger type set to “auto” (Silva et al., 2018). All analyses were performed in quadruplicate.

2.7 Moisture and dimensional characteristics of cookies

The moisture content in cookies was determined in an infrared moisture analyzer (MA35 Sartorius, Bradford, MA, United States) at 105 °C. The cookies’ dimensions were measured using a metric Vernier caliper in terms of weight, diameter, thickness, volume, density (mass/volume), and spread ratio (diameter/thickness). The spread factor (%) of cookies made with oleogels was calculated compared to cookies made with their respective solid fat (Equation 2). All analyses were performed in triplicate.

$\text{Spread\hspace{0.17em}factor\hspace{0.17em}}\left(\%\right)=\left(\frac{{\text{spread}\text{ratio}}_{\text{replaced}-\text{cookie}}}{{\text{spread}\text{ratio}}_{\text{control}-\text{cookie}}}\right)\times 100(2)$

2.8 Statistical analysis

All data from the characterization of doughs and cookies were presented as mean ± standard deviation of triplicates after testing for normality distribution using the Shapiro-Wilk test (α = 0.05). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s post-test was used for multiple means comparisons of doughs and cookies made with oleogels, solid fats, and canola oil using GraphPad Prism v. 7.0 software (GraphPad Software Inc., CA, United States). p-Values ≤0.05 were considered statistically significant. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to confirm how cookies’ samples (doughs and cookies) containing oleogels would cluster with the ones made with conventional solid fats, as a means to check global similarities between samples. The PCA for dough was initially performed with all rheology, texture, and color variables; and for the cookies, the variables considered were dimension, moisture, texture, and color. After considering the score values, the main variables were selected, which were included in a reduced PCA with data from doughs or cookies, using autoscaling. The factors retained explained over 70% of data variance and showed eigenvalues ≥1. All analyses were run in Statgraphics Centurion XVI v. 16.1.03 (Statgraphics Technologies, Inc., VA, United States).

3 Results and discussion

3.1 Technological properties of cookie doughs

3.1.1 Visual appearance and instrumental color of cookie doughs

Visually, doughs containing O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _HGF exhibit a more pronounced oily surface compared to those made with butter, margarine, or partially hydrogenated fat, respectively (Figures 1A–C). Peixoto et al. (2024) reported that the oleogels O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _HGF per se showed high oil binding capacity (>99%). However, in the present study, the oil loss observed in doughs containing these oleogels probably resulted from the disruption of the solid structure of the oleogels due to the shear forces occurring during the dough mixing, leading to oil release (Mert and Demirkesen, 2016a). Therefore, it is advisable to optimize the production conditions of cookies to minimize oil loss in the pre-baking phases, especially in dough mixing. Importantly, the dough containing canola oil discriminated from the other ones, showing a more noticeable oily surface appearance, emphasizing the lack of a structured network and the absence of solid fat properties (Figure 1D).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Visual appearance of cookie doughs and cookies with mimetic oleogels, conventional solid fats, and canola oil. (A) Butter and O _BTR (2.1% CLW); (B) Margarine and O _MGN (2.3% CLW); (C) Hydrogenated fat and O _HGF (2.5% CLW); (D) Canola oil. All mimetic oleogels are loaded with 0.5 wt% α-tocopherol.

Moreover, doughs containing O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _HGF were darker compared to those containing butter, margarine, or partially hydrogenated fat (Figures 1A–C), as confirmed by instrumental color measurements (Table 1). Cookie doughs made with oleogels exhibited lower values for lightness (↓L*), redness (↓a*), and yellowness (↓b*) compared to those made with solid fats, resulting in a distinct color difference. This was evidenced by the color difference (ΔE) values, which ranged from 15.1 to 17.1. Accordingly, a ΔE value higher than 5 indicates a color difference that is easily perceptible to the human eye (Nuñez et al., 2025). Furthermore, the increase in CLW content used to structure the oleogels contributed to a reduction in the redness tone (a*) of doughs, with the lowest values observed in doughs made with O _MGN (2.3% wax) and O _HGF (2.5% wax) (Table 1).

Table 1

Table 1. Technological properties of cookie doughs made with mimetic candelilla wax-based oleogels, conventional solid fats, or canola oil.

The dough containing canola oil had the lowest L*, a*, and b* values among all doughs (Table 1). Consequently, ΔE between the dough made with canola oil and those made with butter, margarine, or partially hydrogenated fat were more evident (ΔE = 28.2, 28.8, and 31.5, respectively) compared to those made with O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _HGF (Table 1).

3.1.2 Rheological properties of cookie doughs

All doughs, regardless of fat source, showed a higher elastic modulus (G′) than viscous modulus (G″) in the frequency range evaluated (Table 1; Figures 2A–C). Both G′ and G″ values of all doughs were frequency-dependent, increasing with rising frequency (Figures 2A–C), indicating that the dough’s structure adapts to changes in deformation frequency, showing a combination of resistance (elastic) and flow (viscous) behavior (Gao et al., 2023). In both cases, the dominance of G′ suggests that either conventional solid fats or oleogels reinforces the dough matrix, enhancing its resistance to deformation. This response is consistent with that reported by Leahu et al. (2025), who observed G′ > G″ for cookie doughs formulated with hemp oil-based oleogels structured by distinct natural waxes, including CWL, characterizing stiffer and more structured composite dough networks.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Viscoelastic properties as a function of the frequency of the cookie doughs with conventional solid fats (blue symbols), mimetic oleogels (red symbols) or canola oil (black symbol). (A) Butter or O _BTR (2.1% CLW) ( ; ); (B) Margarine or O _MGN (2.3% CLW) ( ; ); (C) Hydrogenated fat or O _HGF (2.5% CLW) ( ; ); (D) Canola oil and (E) Tan δ. Full shapes – G′ (storage moduli); Empty shapes – G′′ (loss moduli). All mimetic oleogels are loaded with 0.5% α-tocopherol.

Doughs made with partially hydrogenated fat or butter showed the most elastic and solid-like behavior, as indicated by their higher initial G′ and G″ values, which decreased when those doughs were made with O _HGF and O _BTR, respectively (Table 1). This suggests that O _HGF and O _BTR were less effective in structuring the dough, resulting in a less elastic dough with a weaker structure when compared to their solid fat counterparts. Conversely, the dough containing O _MGN showed higher initial G′ and G″ values than those made with margarine (Figure 2B), indicating that this oleogel was effective in reinforcing the dough matrix relative to this softer solid fat, as margarine produced a less elastic dough than butter and partially hydrogenated fat. This behavior is consistent with the findings of Leahu et al. (2025), who reported higher G′ and G″ values for dough made with CLW-based oleogels compared to margarine controls, despite the use of a substantially higher wax content (9%). Our results indicate that a much lower wax concentration (2.3%) was sufficient to increase dough elasticity beyond that of margarine, while still yielding a viscoelastic profile less rigid than that observed for butter or partially hydrogenated fat.

All doughs showed tan δ values (G′′/G′) in the frequency range evaluated less than 1, confirming their elastic solid-like behavior. However, doughs made with O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _HGF showed higher tan δ values compared to those made with butter, margarine, or partially hydrogenated fat, respectively (Figure 2E). The tan δ values provide insights into whether the dough exhibits more liquid-like or solid-like behavior, with values close to 1 indicating a weaker structure (Gao et al., 2023). Doughs made with oleogels tend to lose their structure more easily than those made with solid fats under deformation, which can be a disadvantage during the handling and shaping process.

Notably, although the dough made with O _MGN has higher initial elasticity compared to dough made with margarine (Figure 2B), it shows less structural stability when subjected to deformation across the evaluated frequency range (Figure 2E). This may be attributed to the absence of stabilizers in O _MGN, such as emulsifiers, which are commonly used in margarine to enhance water-fat phase stability and form a cohesive network. None of the oleogels developed in this study contained stabilizers, which could hinder the interaction between fat and water, disrupting the formation of a well-structured gluten network and contributing to reduced structural stability under stress (Marangoni, 2025).

The tan δ values of all doughs exhibited a non-linear behavior across varying frequencies (Figure 2E). At lower frequencies, these values tended to decrease, particularly in doughs made with solid fats, indicating a more elastic-dominant response and a structure build-up up to 0.1 Hz. In contrast, doughs made with oleogels displayed slightly higher tan δ values compared to their solid fat counterparts, suggesting that while they possess some elastic behavior, there is a more prevalent contribution from viscous flow relative to solid fats. As the frequency increased, tan δ values rose across all doughs, meaning an enhanced role of viscous behavior and a loss of structure. This increase was more pronounced in doughs containing oleogels, with the transition occurring at a lower frequency (0.1 Hz) compared to doughs made with solid fats (1 Hz). This reinforces that oleogel-based doughs have less stable internal structure, which breaks down more readily under higher deformation (Leahu et al., 2025).

The total replacement of butter with rice bran oil-based oleogels structured with soy wax (15%) resulted in dough exhibiting a non-uniform water distribution accompanied by pronounced protein aggregation (Pradhan et al., 2023). This disruption of the continuous protein network was associated with a weakening of the dough structure, as aggregated proteins are less effective in forming an elastic and cohesive matrix. The authors attributed this behavior to the ability of the oleogel network to interfere with water-protein interactions, redistributing water away from gluten proteins and limiting their hydration and proper network development. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that the CLW-based oleogel may similarly alter interactions between water and other dough components, such as starch and proteins, thereby promoting a less structured and mechanically weaker dough system. However, this hypothesis was not directly investigated in the present study.

Moreover, CLW-based oleogels exhibit a structuring network composed of small needle-like crystals that form a relatively porous and less densely interconnected matrix, predominantly stabilized by weak physicochemical interactions such as Van der Waals interactions (Mandu et al., 2020). Solid fats, in contrast, maintain a more robust fat crystal network, predominantly consisting of β or β′ crystalline fat polymorphs, offering greater resistance to structural breakdown, even at elevated frequencies (Yang et al., 2024). During dough mixing and deformation, the weaker and more fragile crystal network of CLW-based oleogels is more susceptible to shear-induced disruption, which can promote partial oil release into the continuous phase. This increase in free oil reduces the ability of the system to sustain elastic deformation, leading to a higher viscous contribution and, consequently, to the higher tan δ values observed in oleogel-based doughs (Hwang et al., 2016; Jang et al., 2015).

The oleogels O _BTR, O _MGN, and O _HGF were previously formulated to replicate per se the rheological properties of butter, margarine, and partially hydrogenated fat (Peixoto et al., 2024). However, in the doughs, these oleogels displayed distinct rheological behavior compared to solid fats, likely due to structural interactions with the other dough components, and to shear forces applied during processing. Unlike solid fats, which form stable crystalline networks capable of establishing strong interactions with proteins and starches, oleogels rely on a weaker structured matrix formed by CLW and oil (Li et al., 2022). The shear forces applied during mixing can partially disrupt this matrix, releasing oil and reducing its ability to maintain the structure. Oleogels still provide a more internal stable structure compared to liquid canola oil (Figures 2D,E), which lacks a crystalline network and interacts poorly with gluten proteins, compromising dough extensibility and viscoelasticity (Perţa-Crişan et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024).

3.1.3 Textural properties of cookie doughs

Doughs containing O _BTR or O _MGN were harder but showed lower cohesiveness and springiness compared to those containing butter and margarine, respectively. No significant differences were observed in the adhesiveness of these doughs (Table 1). These oleogels created firmer but more brittle doughs. In contrast, the dough made with O _HGF was less adhesive, cohesive, and springy than the one made with partially hydrogenated fat, although hardness remained unaffected (Table 1). Overall, these results suggest that oleogels tend to form a dense crystal network on the dough surface while creating a less integrated or weaker bonding structure within the internal dough matrix (Demirkesen and Mert, 2019). The higher the CLW content in the oleogels, the less integrated the dough became, with dough cohesiveness decreasing proportionally to the amount of CLW (Table 1).

Doughs made with O _BTR and O _MGN tend to exhibit an oilier surface compared to doughs made with O _HGF (Figure 1). The lower CLW content in O _BTR and O _MGN may have led to greater structural destabilization of the oleogels during mixing, releasing more oil. This free oil tends to disperse throughout the dough, forming small fat globules that affect the cohesion and extensibility of the gluten network, thus increasing dough hardness (Kumar et al., 2025). Hwang et al. (2016) observed similar results, reporting that cookie doughs made with CLW-based oleogels (8% CLW) were harder than those containing margarine, especially when highly unsaturated oils were used as the oil phase. Accordingly, Peixoto et al. (2024) showed that O _HGF (10.4 N) was the hardest oleogel, compared to both O _MGN (8.75 N), and O _BTR (6.45 N); but in the doughs made with these oleogels this trend was not replicated, indicating that the ability of oleogels to impart hardness to the dough depends on how well it interacts and integrates with other ingredients under processing conditions (Yılmaz and Ӧğütcü, 2015).

The higher hardness observed for doughs made with O _BTR and O _MGN agrees with previous reports showing that wax-based oleogels generally produce firmer doughs than conventional solid fats. Pradhan et al. (2023) demonstrated that increasing butter replacement from 25% to 100% with rice bran oil-based oleogel structured with soy wax progressively increased dough firmness. Similarly, total replacement of margarine with hemp oil-based oleogels structured with different natural waxes (candelilla, rice bran, beeswax, and carnauba) resulted in a marked increase in dough hardness, emphasizing the role of the crystalline wax network in enhancing mechanical resistance (Leahu et al., 2025). In the present study, although the oleogels contained lower wax levels (<2.5%), they still promoted an increase in dough firmness, suggesting that mechanisms beyond a highly developed crystalline network may contribute to dough strengthening.

In this context, doughs formulated with O_BTR, O_MGN, or O_HGF were harder and more cohesive than those prepared with canola oil, although they exhibited lower adhesiveness. Doughs made with oil are typically reported to be harder due to their greater ability to restrict gluten network extensibility (Onacik-Gür and Żbikowska, 2020). However, in the present study, the increased stiffeness of the composite dough network appears to arise not only from the presence of wax crystals, which can establish stronger interactions with proteins and starch and promote a more rigid and cohesive matrix (Hwang et al., 2016), but also from structural disruption during mixing. Shear-induced partial breakdown of the oleogel network may lead to heterogeneous oil distribution and localized rigid domains, amplifying dough firmness despite the overall fragile structure observed by rheological analysis (Mert and Demirkesen, 2016a).

3.2 Technological properties of cookies

3.2.1 Visual appearance and instrumental color of the cookies

Visually, cookies prepared with O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _MGN exhibited a darker surface appearance compared to those made with butter, margarine, partially hydrogenated fat, or canola oil (Figure 1). Accordingly, cookies made with oleogels showed lower luminosity (L*) on the surface (Table 2), as the doughs (Table 1). Moreover, cookies made with O _BTR or O _MGN showed lower redness (↓a*) and yellowness (↓b*) tones than those made with butter or margarine, respectively. In contrast, cookies made with O _HGF showed similar redness (=a*), but higher yellowness (↑b*) than those made with partially hydrogenated fat (Table 2). Cookies made with oleogels showed ΔE higher than 6.0, indicating a noticeable color difference compared to those made with solid fats, especially O _HGF that were the most visually distinct from their solid fat reference. Surprisingly, the cookies made with canola oil showed the lowest ΔE when compared to the cookies made with solid fats (Table 2).

Table 2

Table 2. Technological properties of cookies made with mimetic candelilla wax-based oleogels, conventional solid fats, or canola oil.

Previous studies also reported that the incorporation of oleogels structured with CLW into cookie formulations alters the optical properties of the baked products, mainly affecting lightness (L*) parameter. Flores-García et al. (2023) showed that increasing the replacement of butter by oleogel structured with organic candelilla wax resulted in darker cookies, particularly at higher oleogel substitution levels (70%–100%). From a consumer perspective, color is a critical attribute influencing product acceptance. Therefore, the noticeable color difference in cookies made with oleogels may impact consumer perception and acceptance due to its visual distinction from traditional options. However, if consumers are informed that the product offers a healthier alternative, this color difference could become acceptable (McSweeney, 2022).

These color changes can be attributed to the intrinsic color of the oleogels, the presence of natural pigments in the oil phase, and modifications in heat transfer and surface browning during baking (Flores-García et al., 2023). CWL-based oleogels may increase interactions between the substrates involved in non-enzymatic browning reactions, such as Maillard and caramelization pathways, thereby intensifying browning (Li et al., 2022; Onacik-Gür and Żbikowska, 2020). Notably, the cookies with O _HGF, with a higher CLW content (2.5%), had a greater yellow component (Table 2). This can be attributed to the intrinsic yellowish coloration of CLW and of α-tocopherol, especially those of CLW whose color becomes more influential at higher wax concentrations (Flores-García et al., 2023).

3.2.2 Dimensional properties of the cookies

Cookies made with O _BTR and O _MGN showed lower moisture content than cookies made with their corresponding solid fats. However, cookies made with O _HGF or partially hydrogenated fat showed similar moisture content (Table 2). Nevertheless, all the cookies, either made with solid fats or oleogels, showed a moisture content below 7%, which may help extend their shelf life (Asadi et al., 2022). Besides, the moisture content of the oleogels was inversely proportional to the CLW content due to the hydrophobic nature of the wax (Yılmaz and Ӧğütcü, 2015).

Cookies containing O _BTR, O _MGN, or O _HGF exhibited larger diameters than their corresponding solid fat counterparts, but only those made with O _BTR and O _HGF showed a higher spread ratio. Cookies made with O _MGN had a spread ratio comparable to that of cookies made with margarine, achieving an ideal baking performance with a spread factor of 100%. Cookies containing O _BTR and O _HGF reached an acceptable spread factor (Table 2). In general, the increased diameter and spread ratio in cookies made with oleogels are likely attributed to the lower viscosity of the oleogels at baking temperatures, which may have impaired dough expansion and promoted collapse of cookies during baking (Jang et al., 2015). The use of O _BTR and O _HGF as substitutes for butter and partially hydrogenated fat, respectively, did not affect the density of the cookies. However, the use of O _MGN produced less dense cookies than those with margarine (Table 2), suggesting that the former were more aerated. The CLW content in doughs did not affect the density of the cookies.

Cookies made with oleogels showed better baking performance than cookies made with canola oil, which showed a spread factor of 54%, 52%, and 39% compared to butter, margarine, and partially hydrogenated fat, respectively. As the wax has a higher melting point than oil, CLW-based oleogels promoted a more controlled release of free oil into the dough, resulting in better control of gluten development and cookie spreading (Jang et al., 2015; Li et al., 2022; Mert and Demirkesen, 2016b).

3.2.3 Textural properties of the cookies

Cookies made with O _BTR, O _MGN, and O _HGF were on average 2-fold softer and 3-fold less crispy than those made with butter, margarine, or partially hydrogenated fat, respectively (Table 2). In general, cookies made with oleogels tend to be softer than those made with solid fats, probably due to their lower stability and less crystalline structure compared to solid fats, which also influenced the crispiness of the cookies (Mert and Demirkesen, 2016b). Consisting with these findings, cookies formulated with oleogels structured with organic CLW at different concentrations (3%, 6% and 9%) were softer than those prepared with shortening, with hardness decreasing as the level of oleogel substitution increased from 30% to 100% (Flores-García et al., 2023). Similarly, cookies in which margarine was totally replaced by hemp oil oleogels structured with CLW (9%) were among the softest formulations. Therefore, CLW-based oleogels may represent an attractive alternative for consumers who prefer softer and more tender cookies.

The concentration of CLW in the oleogels did not impact the hardness and crispness of the cookies. However, cookies made with canola oil were harder and less crispy than those made with oleogels (Table 2). Additionally, the hardness of the cookie dough does not necessarily predict the hardness of cookies (Table 1 and Table 2), as previously observed when using oleogels structured with 3% or 6% CLW to replace shortening in cookies (Mert and Demirkesen, 2016a).

3.3 Clustering of samples

PCA was used to cluster doughs (Figure 3A) and cookies (Figure 3B), which were analyzed separately. Two principal components were extracted from the PCA of dough variables, which explained 85.5% of the total variance (Figure 3A). The first principal component (PC1) explained 56.5% of the variance and was mostly influenced by the luminosity (L*, −0.60) and springiness (−0.58) of doughs. Contrastingly, the second principal component (PC2) explained 28.9% of the variance and was influenced by the hardness (0.63) and tan δ (0.55) of doughs. Based on the projections of variables, samples were clustered into three groups in the PCA diagram, allowing the identification of samples made with canola oil (lower right quadrant), oleogels (upper right quadrant), or solid fats (on the left). O _BTR, O _MGN, and O _HGF did not support doughs able to reproduce the properties of doughs made with butter, margarine, or partially hydrogenated fat, respectively. However, it was very clear that the oleogels performance was clearly distinguished from the canola oil used as a negative control. Doughs containing oleogels were distinguished mainly by their highest hardness and lowest viscoelasticity. Contrastingly, the highest springiness and luminosity were the diverging characteristics of doughs made with solid fats.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Score-plot of principal components 1 and 2 for (A) cookie dough samples, or (B) cookie samples, formulated with mimetic oleogels, conventional solid fats, or the negative reference canola oil.

For the cookie variables, two principal components were also extracted, explaining 97% of the total variance (Figure 3B). The PC1 explained 58.2% of the variance and was correlated mainly with the crispness of cookies (−0.73). Otherwise, PC2 explained 38.9% of the variance and was correlated with the luminosity (0.83) of cookies. The spread ratios of cookies contributed equally to both PCs (PC1 = 0.59 and PC2 = 0.55). Cookies were clustered into three groups as follows: cookies made with canola oil (upper right quadrant); cookies made with oleogels or partially hydrogenated fat (lower right quadrant), and cookies made with butter or margarine (left quadrants).

Cookies made with canola oil were distinguished by their highest spread ratio, while cookies made with oleogels or partially hydrogenated fat were highlighted by their darkest color. The clustering obtained for cookies differed from that obtained for doughs, reinforcing that the properties of dough will not necessarily indicate the final properties of cookies.

O _BTR and O _MGN failed to reproduce the properties of cookies made with margarine and butter, respectively. These oleogels can mimic the viscoelastic properties of margarine and butter as isolated systems but they were unable to reproduce the properties of these solid fats in the presence of other ingredients used in bakery products. However, all oleogels resulted in cookies with similar technological properties to those containing partially hydrogenated fat. Butter and margarine tend to have a more complex composition and crystallization behavior, which makes it difficult to reproduce their properties in food products due to interactions with other components (Yang et al., 2024).

Additionally, all oleogels performed sensibly better than canola oil, indicating that structuring this oil with low concentrations of CLW and α-tocopherol holds promise for developing novel products with enhanced nutritional and bioactive properties, especially for replacing partially hydrogenated fat in food products. Importantly, all cookies formulated with oleogels contained 8 mg of α-tocopherol per unit, which can contribute to reaching vitamin E daily requirement that varies from 8 to 15 mg/day (Szewczyk et al., 2021). There is a growing interest in the development of CLW-based oleogels as fat substitutes in bakery products (Li et al., 2022; Vernon-Carter et al., 2020), but studies that focus on oleogels using low wax concentrations with improved nutritional profile can increase the versatility of these oleogels and their use on an industrial scale as fat replacers.

This challenge is further reflected in sensory and multivariate analyses. Leahu et al. (2025) reported, through PCA, that cookies made with CLW-based oleogels (9%) did not cluster with margarine-based control cookies, but rather grouped on the opposite side of the PCA plot, driven by differences in texture, flavor, color sensorial attributes and overall acceptability. This separation highlights the challenge of minimizing sensory deviations when replacing solid fats. Similarly, Flores-García et al. (2023) reported that although cookies containing organic CLW-based oleogels (9%) were sensorially acceptable, their overall liking scores were consistently lower than those of shortening-based control cookies, particularly at higher oleogel substitution levels (70%–100%), reflecting consumer sensitivity to textural and flavor changes.

The complexities of cookie formulation highlight the challenges of replicating the properties of solid fats with oleogels. The interactions between fat, flour, water, and other ingredients, along with the mechanical forces during mixing and baking, create a demanding environment that can compromise the stability and functionality of oleogels. Despite these challenges, the use of oleogels remains promising, as they can still produce cookies with acceptable qualities. In the case of the present work, in addition to fat replacement, the oleogel provided a feasible source of vitamin E. With potential adjustments in formulation and processing, cookies made with O _BTR, O _MGN, and O _HGF may offer healthier products that potentially retain sensory properties well-accepted by consumers. To ensure the successful application of these oleogels in cookies for the food industry, future studies assessing the sensory attributes and oxidative stability of these products are highly deserved.

4 Conclusion

CLW-based oleogels enriched with α-tocopherol effectively replicated the technological functionality of partially hydrogenated fat in cookies, particularly in terms of spread ratio, crispness, and surface luminosity. Although the doughs prepared with oleogels exhibited distinct rheological and textural properties compared to those made with conventional solid fats, the final baked products demonstrated satisfactory technological quality. Additionally, each oleogel-based cookie provided approximately 8 mg of α-tocopherol, corresponding to a substantial contribution to the recommended daily intake of vitamin E, thereby underscoring the added nutritional advantage of these formulations. Overall, these findings support the potential application of low-wax oleogels as a viable and healthier alternative to solid fats in the formulation of industrial bakery products.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Author contributions

VP: Investigation, Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Data curation. GB: Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft. CC-J: Writing – review and editing, Resources. TM: Writing – original draft, Formal Analysis. MN: Writing – review and editing, Resources. AT: Conceptualization, Supervision, Resources, Funding acquisition, Writing – review and editing. VC-B: Supervision, Project administration, Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing, Resources, Funding acquisition.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was financially supported by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, CAPES-Brazil (Finance Code 001); Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ) [grant numbers E-26/010.101,016/2018; E-26/010.001436/2019; E-26/211.280/2021; E-26/201.161/2021; 26003/015251/2021] and Conselho Nacional Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) [grant numbers 434637/2018-1; 169030/2018-0; 315579/2021-8]. VD-SOP. and GBB were recipients of CAPES/CNPq PhD scholarships, and AGT was a recipient of CNPq and FAPERJ research fellowships.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

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