Abstract
The Nenjiang-Heihe metallogenic belt of the northern Great Xing’an Range is renowned for Mesozoic epithermal Au deposits, however, apart from the Duobaoshan and Tongshan super-large porphyry deposits in the Paleozoic, no superlarge porphyry copper deposits have been discovered in the Mesozoic. The metallogenic potential of Mesozoic porphyry Cu-Mo deposits in this belt remains controversial. Recent deep drilling in the Tongmushan district intersected a molybdenite-bearing quartz diorite porphyry, representing a breakthrough in exploring for porphyry ore beneath epithermal systems. Here, we present an integrated study of this newly discovered intrusion, integrating petrography, whole-rock geochemistry, zircon U-Pb and molybdenite Re-Os geochronologies. The results show that molybdenite Re-Os dating yields 115.4 ± 2.7 Ma, which is coeval with zircon U-Pb ages of 120–116 Ma, establishing an Early Cretaceous magmatic-hydrothermal event. The ore-bearing rocks exhibit high-K calc-alkaline affinities with elevated Sr/Y (>30) and Al2O3/TiO2 (>20) ratios, and plot in the hydrous magma field. High Fe2O3/FeO ratios (1.58–2.44) and magnetite-series characteristics indicate strongly oxidized conditions favorable for porphyry mineralization, comparable to Cretaceous ore-bearing porphyries in NE China. Geochemical discrimination indicates their formation in an active continental margin setting, locally overprinted by Early Cretaceous extension. The temporal and geochemical affinities between Tongmushan porphyry Cu-Mo and regional epithermal Au systems suggests a continuum from deep porphyry to shallow epithermal environments. This study provides the first direct evidence for Early Cretaceous porphyry potential in this belt.
1 Introduction
The northern Great Xing’an Range, situated in the eastern part of the Central Asian-Mongolian orogenic belt, constitutes the most prospective polymetallic (Cu-Au-Mo-W-Fe) province along the northeastern margin of north China (Zhai et al., 2011; Gao et al., 2017; Yuan et al., 2021a; b; Liu et al., 2021). The region trends in a NE and crosses North China along the Hegenshan-Heihe suture zone (Gao et al., 2017). Superimposed reactivation of the Palaeo-Asian Ocean, Okhotsk, and Palaeo-Pacific tectonic domains triggered intense magmatic-hydrothermal activity, producing a series of Mesozoic epithermal Au deposits within the Nenjiang-Heihe metallogenic belt in the northern Great Xing’an Range, such as Yongxin and Sandaowanzi Au deposits (Zeng et al., 2014; Gao et al., 2017; Yuan et al., 2018). However, although super-large Palaeozoic porphyry Cu-Au systems (e.g., Tongshan and Duobaoshan) have been documented in the belt (Liu et al., 2012; 2017) (Figure 1), no Mesozoic porphyry deposits have yet been recognized, and the metallogenic potential of Mesozoic porphyry-style mineralization in the Nenjiang-Heihe metallogenic belt remains contentious. In recent years, significant advances have been made in the petrology, mineralogy and metallogenic process of porphyry deposits, particularly regarding zircon geochemistry (Loucks et al., 2024; Xie et al., 2026) and whole-rock geochemical exploration proxies such as magmatic oxygen fugacity and water content, which provide critical tools for mineralization assessment. These developments provide essential methodologies for our study.
FIGURE 1
The Sandaowanzi Au deposit is a large telluride-bearing epithermal system located in the northern part of the Nenjiang-Heihe metallogenic belt (Zhai et al., 2015). Previous studies have addressed ore geology, geochronology, whole-rock and isotopic geochemistry, and origin of ore-forming fluids and metals (Zhai et al., 2018). Classified as an epithermal system, this deposit has a limited deep-seated porphyry ore potential in its mining area. However, recent deep and peripheral drillings have intersected significant molybdenum-mineralized quartz-diorite porphyry within the Tongmushan district, north of the Sandaowanzi Au deposit. This discovery represents a significant breakthrough in the exploration for porphyry-type ore bodies beneath epithermal deposits in the Nenjiang-Heihe metallogenic belt. Therefore, this study presents an integrated investigation of the newly discovered Mo-bearing quartz-diorite porphyry and coeval felsic intrusions in the Tongmushan district. Our analytical approach integrates detailed petrography, whole-rock major-trace element, high-precision U-Pb and Re-Os geochronology. Our results offer new perspectives on Mesozoic porphyry metallogenesis within the Tongmushan district of the Nenjiang-Heihe metallogenic belt.
2 Geological background
The Tongmushan district is situated in the northeastern margin of the Xing’an-Mongolian Orogenic Belt, eastern segment of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt and lies in the northern section of the polymetallic belt of the Great Xing’an Range (Figure 2; Zhai et al., 2011; Wu et al., 2022). Stretching from south to north across the Erguna, Xing’an, and Songnen blocks, this metallogenic belt constitutes a crucial concentration area of epithermal gold deposits hosted by the westward extension of the Circum-Pacific metallogenic domain (Zhai et al., 2011; Hao et al., 2015). The region has undergone superimposed reworking by the Paleo-Asian Ocean tectonic domain and the Paleo-Pacific tectonic domain successively. Based on the tectonic boundaries bounded by the Tayuan-Xiguitu Fault, the Hegenshan-Heihe Fault, and the Mudanjiang Fault, the area is divided into four blocks from west to east: the Erguna, Xing’an, Songnen, and Jiamusi blocks (Zhao and Zhang, 1997). The Erguna Block stabilized in the Early Paleozoic, while the Xing’an Block collided and accreted with it along the Tayuan-Xiguitu Fault during the same period (Gao et al., 2017; Yuan et al., 2018). The Songnen Block was accreted to the aforementioned combined block along the Hegenshan-Nenjiang Fault in the Late Paleozoic, and the composite block ultimately was amalgamated with the North China Craton along the Xar Moron Suture Zone at the end of the Paleozoic (Zhai et al., 2020). In the Early Mesozoic, the Jiamusi Block was finally welded to the already accreted composite block of the Xing’an-Mongolian Orogenic Belt along the Mudanjiang Fault, establishing the present-day tectonic framework (Liu et al., 2021).
FIGURE 2
Magmatism in this region are frequent and polyphase, with Mesozoic magmatic events being predominantly closely associated with mineralization (Hao et al., 2015; Figure 1). Paleozoic mineralization in this belt is represented by the Zhengguang, Tongshan, and Duobaoshan Cu-Au deposits, in stark contrast to the Mesozoic period, which hosts numerous polymetallic deposits such as Sandaowanzi, Mengdehe, Keluo, Sanhetun, Sankuanggou, Yongxin, Shangmachang, and Erdaokan and so on (Yuan et al., 2018; 2021a). Early Jurassic magmatic activity is represented by monzogranite intrusions, which are pre-mineralization I-type granites derived from partial melting of the juvenile lower crust (Wang et al., 2022). These granites merely form the basement of the deposit and have no direct contribution to mineralization. The Early Cretaceous marks the peak of regional magmatism, whose products are further divided into volcanic rocks and dikes. The volcanic rock series comprises andesites of the Longjiang Formation and dacites of the Guanghua Formation. These rocks belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series and serving as the main ore-hosting wall rocks (Zhai et al., 2020). The dike assemblage consists of intermediate-basic diabase porphyrites, diorite porphyrites, and acid rhyolite porphyries, which were emplaced rapidly under an extensional tectonic setting. Fluids associated with this magmatic episode are interpreted as the source of metals for large-scale Cretaceous mineralization, giving rise to deposits such as Yongxin, Sanhetun, and Sandaowanzi (Yuan et al., 2018; 2021b).
3 Geologic background of tongmushan district
The exposed volcanic strata in the Tongmushan mining area (Figure 3) are dominated by the Silurian-Devonian Niqiuhe Formation, the Lower Cretaceous Longjiang Formation, the Lower Cretaceous Guanghua Formation, and Quaternary strata (Zhao et al., 2019a; b). The Niqiuhe Formation is distributed in the central part of the Tongmushan district. Its rock assemblage consists of sandstone, slate, phyllitic slate and tuffaceous siltstone intercalated with lenticular lenses of crystalline limestone. The succession represents a shallow-marine epiclastic-carbonate sedimentary succession with minor intercalations of volcanic rocks (Tang et al., 2022). In places, the rocks have undergone contact metamorphism and hornfelsization related to later intrusive bodies. Extensively exposed in the northwestern part of the Tongmushan district, the Longjiang Formation consists of a suite of subalkaline to mildly alkaline continental volcanic rocks. The predominant lithologies include trachy-andesite, trachy-andesitic volcanic breccia, andesite, andesitic autoclastic breccia, andesitic volcanic breccia, crystal-lithic tuff containing breccia fragments, and brecciated lava. Volcanic activity was dominated by central-vent eruptions, with effusive and airfall pyroclastic facies being the most common. The succession rests eruptionally and unconformably upon Jurassic granitoids and constitutes the immediate country rock to mineralization, the rocks display elevated Au and Ag background values (Tang et al., 2022). The Guanghua Formation crops out the southern part of the Tongmushan district and overlies the Longjiang Formation. Comprising a suite of moderately acidic, mildly alkaline continental volcanic rocks, the Guanghua Formation is dominated by rhyolitic breccia-bearing tuff, volcanic breccia, tuff, dacite, and rhyolite. The formation overlies the Longjiang Formation with a highly variable thickness, and is characterized mainly by airfall and effusive facies. Volcanism was principally of central-vent type, later intruded by sub-volcanic bodies. Quaternary is black humic soil rich in organic matter, underlain by yellow-brown clay, sand, gravel and clastic loose sediments.
FIGURE 3
In the peripheral area of the Tongmushan district, an advanced argillic alteration assemblage has been identified, comprising barite, porous quartz, alunite, dickite, kaolinite, and opal. This alteration is accompanied by a hypogene ore mineral assemblage including auriferous pyrite, enargite, tetrahedrite, and tennantite, collectively indicative of a high-sulfidation epithermal deposit formed at moderate to low temperatures. Notably, gypsum has been encountered at depth in all drill holes, suggesting significant potential for the discovery of porphyry-type mineralization in the surrounding areas. The district is characterized entirely by concealed, blind ore bodies, with an average molybdenum grade of 0.05%. However, due to the relatively limited drilling campaign, the geometry of these ore bodies remains undefined. Deep drill holes ZK902, ZK905, ZK707, and ZK708 have intersected stockwork quartz veins, as well as chalcopyrite-pyrite-molybdenite-quartz veins and massive sulfide veins. Molybdenite occurs as fine veinlets hosted within quartz diorite (Figure 4), exhibiting classic characteristics of porphyry-style mineralization.
FIGURE 4
4 Sampling and methods
4.1 Sample locations
Molybdenite separates for Re-Os dating were obtained from drilling of ZK707 (130 m, 155 m and 169 m depth) and ZK708 (521.5–525.2 m depth) at the Tongmushan district. In both drillings, the host rock is quartz diorite and the ore minerals—molybdenite and pyrite—occur as fine veinlets and stockwork veinlets. The U-Pb dating samples were collected from diorite at 261.8 m depth in drill of ZK707, granodiorite at 227 m in the same drilling, dacite porphyry at 415 m in drilling of ZK702, and diorite porphyry at 444 m in the same drilling. For whole-rock geochemical analysis, twenty-seven samples were selected from drillings of ZK702 and ZK707 in the Tongmushan district. The volcanic suite comprises six andesites (all from ZK707 and ZK702) and one dacite (from ZK702). The plutonic suite includes four granite diorites, ten biotite syenogranites, two quartz diorites, three diorite porphyries and one fine-grained diorite, all collected from the same two drillings (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5
4.2 Analytical methods
4.2.1 Re-Os geochronology
Separation and hand-picking of molybdenite were performed at Langfang Yantan Geological Service Co., Ltd.; the resulting separates have a purity ≥99%. The grains were then ground in an agate mortar to <200 mesh to eliminate potential Re-Os decoupling in coarse molybdenite crystals (Stein et al., 2001; 2003). Re-Os isotope analyses were carried out at the National Research Center for Geoanalysis. Detailed analytical procedures are described in Stein et al. (2003) and Li et al. (2009). Isotopic ratios were measured on a TJA X-series ICP-MS (Thermo Jarrell Ash, United States). Total procedural blanks for this study were 0.0016 ng for Re and 0.00011 ng for 187Os.
4.2.2 U-Pb geochronology
U-Pb isotopic analyses were performed on an UP-193SS laser-ablation system coupled to an Agilent 7500a ICP-MS in Wuhan Sample Solution Analytical Technology Co., Ltd. The analytical protocol employed a 30 µm spot diameter, 10 Hz repetition rate, 5 s pre-ablation and 45 s signal acquisition. Argon (1.13 L min-1) was used as the carrier gas. External calibration was carried out using the 91,500 zircon standard. Raw data were reduced with Glitter 4.4.1; age calculations and Concordia diagrams were constructed with Isoplot 4.15. Reported 206Pb/238U weighted-mean ages are quoted at the 90% confidence level with 2σ uncertainties (Grunsky et al., 2024).
4.2.3 Major, trace and rare-earth elements
Major-element oxides were determined on fused glass discs using an Axios MAX X-ray fluorescence spectrometer in Hebei Province Regional Geology and Mineral Resources Investigation Institute Laboratory. Relative errors are <2%. Au was analysed by atomic-absorption spectrophotometry (ICE-3400). Trace and rare-earth elements were measured on an X Series 2 ICP-MS following acid-digestion solution preparation; loss-on-ignition was obtained with a P124S electronic analytical balance. Analytical precision for all trace-element data is better than 5% RSD (Li et al., 2024).
5 Results
5.1 Molybdenite Re-Os geochronology
The analysed molybdenite separates contain 187Os concentrations ranging from 983 to 3,505 ng g-1. Their very low initial 187Os value (2 ± 27 ng g-1) demonstrates that essentially all 187Os present is radiogenic, produced solely by in situ decay of 187Re. This fulfills the fundamental requirement for calculating meaningful model ages and confirms the validity of the Re-Os chronometer. Regression of the Re-Os isotopic data yields an isochron age of 115.4 ± 2.7 Ma (MSWD = 0.16), indistinguishable from the weighted-mean model age of 115.62 ± 0.95 Ma (Figure 6).
FIGURE 6
5.2 Zircon U-Pb geochronology
Zircons extracted from all these rocks in the Tongmushan district exhibit well-developed oscillatory zoning, characteristic of a magmatic origin. The weighted mean ages of zircons U–Pb from 18 analytical spots in diorite sample ZK707-15 yield 120.6 ± 1.7 Ma (MSWD = 0.52). Nineteen zircon U–Pb analyses from granodiorite sample ZK707-6 give a weighted mean age of 120.2 ± 1.8 Ma (MSWD = 0.30). Similarly, 19 zircon U–Pb analyses from dacite porphyry sample ZK702-10 yield a weighted mean age of 118.4 ± 2.0 Ma (MSWD = 1.4), whereas 19 zircon U–Pb analyses from diorite porphyry sample ZK702-13 produce a weighted mean age of 116.1 ± 1.7 Ma (MSWD = 0.71). All these intrusions are assigned to the Early Cretaceous (Figure 7).
FIGURE 7
5.3 Whole-rock geochemistry
Major-element compositions of the volcanic rocks are as follows: SiO2 55.72–73.26 wt%, Al2O3 13.13–20.31 wt%, TiO2 0.23–1.02 wt%, MgO 0.52–4.54 wt%, and Na2O+ K2O 4.41–11.10 wt%. On the TAS (Na2O + K2O-SiO2) diagram the samples plot within the rhyolite, trachyte and trachy-andesite fields (Figure 8a). To refine the nomenclature, the Zr/TiO2–Nb/Y diagram was applied, which indicates that the volcanic suite is dominated by andesite and dacite (Figure 8c).
FIGURE 8
Geochemical characteristics of the granitoids are as follows: SiO2 59.64–69.16 wt%, TiO2 0.37–0.85 wt%, Al2O3 15.58–17.46 wt%, CaO 0.45–4.66 wt%, Na2O+ K2O 6.30–8.51 wt%, and K2O/Na2O 0.4–1.1 (mean 0.7); MgO ranges from 0.67 to 3.15 wt%. On the TAS diagram the samples plot predominantly within the granodiorite and quartz monzonite fields (Figure 8b).
In the SiO2-K2O diagram all samples belong to the high-K calc-alkaline series (Figure 9a). The alkalinity ratio (A.R.) varies from 1.93 to 2.72 (mean 2.13). On the SiO2-A.R. diagram virtually all points fall in the high-K calc-alkaline field (Figure 9b). The alkalinity index (σ) ranges between 1.75 and 3.35 (mean 2.4), confirming a calc-alkaline affinity. The differentiation index (DI) spans 62.72–82.15 (mean 70.93). The aluminum saturation index (A/CNK) is 0.91–1.80 (mean 1.06), classifying the rocks as metaluminous (Figure 9c).
FIGURE 9
The volcanic and intrusive rocks display broadly comparable trace-element contents and distribution patterns. On the primitive-mantle-normalized spider diagram (Figures 10a,b) they exhibit pronounced enrichment in large-ion lithophile elements (K, Rb, Ba) and in the high-field-strength elements Th, U and La, coupled with marked depletion in Nb, Ti and P. Volcanic and sub-volcanic samples yield Sr/Y ratios of 12.22–42.99 (mean 26.44), plotting predominantly within the field of typical intra-oceanic arc magmas, whereas the intrusive suite shows Sr/Y values of 5.09–73.03 (mean 46.63), with most analyses straddling the boundary between adakitic and classic arc fields (Figure 9d).
FIGURE 10
Volcanic and intrusive rocks share broadly comparable REE systematics (Figures 10c,d). The volcanic–sub-volcanic suite yields ΣREE 113.98–209.53 ppm (mean 150.46 ppm), displays a steep right-inclined pattern with LREE/HREE 7.13–13.51, (LaN/YbN) 8.32–18.78 (mean 14.41), and only dacite porphyry shows a weak negative Eu anomaly (δEu 0.64–1.08), implying negligible plagioclase in the source liquidus or limited plagioclase fractionation, whereas the intrusive suite gives ΣREE 122.75–201.94 ppm (mean 138.94 ppm), similarly LREE-enriched and HREE-depleted with LREE/HREE 9.71–15.09, (LaN/YbN) 10.64–22.04 (mean 16.97) and no Eu anomaly (δEu 0.82–1.03).
6 Discussion
6.1 Porphyry mineralization age
Since the Mesozoic, the Great Xing’an Range has experienced intense tectono-magmatic-metallogenic events driven by the persistent subduction and subsequent slab rollback of the palaeo-Pacific plate (Gao et al., 2017). The most voluminous episode of intermediate-felsic magmatism occurred during the Yanshanian orogeny, accompanied by the emplacement of numerous precious-metal deposits such as the Sandaowanzi, Sanhetun, Shangmachang and Yongxin gold deposits (Zhai et al., 2018; Yuan et al., 2018).
In this study, samples for intrusion geochronology (zircon U-Pb) were obtained from dioritic porphyrite, dacitic porphyry, diorite and granodiorite in the Tongmushan district, whereas molybdenite for Re-Os dating was separated from quartz diorite recovered from ZK707 and ZK708. A Re-Os isochron for Tongmushan molybdenite, determined for the first time, gives an age of 115.4 ± 2.7 Ma (Figure 6). Zircon U-Pb analyses yield weighted-mean ages of 120.6 ± 1.7 Ma for diorite, 120.2 ± 1.8 Ma for granodiorite, 118.4 ± 2.0 Ma for dacitic porphyry and 116.1 ± 1.7 Ma for dioritic porphyrite (Figure 7).
Early Cretaceous granodiorites are also exposed in the Beidagou, northeast of Tongmushan district, where they intrude the Early Cretaceous Guanghua Formation volcanic rocks. Zircon U-Pb ages for these granodiorites and fine-grained granites range from 124.7 to 118.7 Ma (Liu et al., 2011; Gao et al., 2017). The temporal span of this magmatic episode is broadly coeval with the main mineralization stage at Sandaowanzi, and all these intrusions are attributed to Early Cretaceous magmatism that may be genetically linked to Early Cretaceous porphyry Mo mineralization.
These ages document a late-stage pulse of intermediate-felsic magmatism synchronous with Early Cretaceous volcanism. The previously defined “Sandaowanzi unit” is reinterpreted as a composite intermediate-felsic intrusive complex assembled during multiple magmatic episodes. The Re-Os age of molybdenite establishes that porphyry-style Cu-Mo mineralization in the Tongmushan district is genetically linked to late-stage hydrothermal activity associated with this Early Cretaceous magmatic flare-up.
6.2 Source and evolution of Mo-bearing magma
Previous studies have proposed that the Early Cretaceous magmatism in NE China was generated in an extensional tectonic regime (Wu et al., 2002; 2003). The principal lines of evidence include: (1) the widespread occurrence of Early Cretaceous A-type granites and alkaline rhyolites (Ge et al., 2005); (2) the recognition of Early Cretaceous metamorphic core complexes (Liu et al., 2005); (3) bimodal dyke swarms and volcanic suites composed of coeval mafic and felsic end-members (Zhang et al., 2006); and (4) the development of extensional basins exemplified by the Songliao Basin (Mao et al., 2003). Some workers have even argued that the Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks were emplaced in a continental rift setting (Yin et al., 2006).
In the Tongmushan district, the Early Cretaceous volcanic sequence is dominated by andesite, dacite and rhyolite, with local basaltic, latitic, trachytic, alkaline basaltic or alkaline rhyolitic varieties. This assemblage has been attributed to dehydration melting of subducted, hot oceanic crust triggered by hornblende breakdown, coupled with phlogopite dehydration in the deep mantle wedge that generated potassic to ultrapotassic melts (Shao et al., 2018). The rocks exhibit adakitic geochemical affinities and are considered to represent an island-arc signature (Figure 9d). On the Nb/Yb versus Th/Yb diagram, most of the intrusive samples plot between the E-MORB and OIB fields (Figure 11a), indicating that the ore-bearing intrusions in the Tongmushan district formed in a magmatic arc setting. In addition, these compositions are consistent with the field defined by host rocks for major porphyry Cu deposits in NE China from previous studies, suggesting favorable metallogenic potential for this magmatic suite. Wang (2017) using the Zr–Ti/100–Y × 3 and Th–Hf/3–Ta discrimination diagrams, showed that the Early Cretaceous volcanic rocks of the study area, together with their counterparts elsewhere in the Great Xing’an Range, plot within the calc-alkaline basalt field or at the junction between calc-alkaline basalts and volcanic-arc settings, comparable to continental-margin arc volcanics. In tectonic discrimination diagrams (Figure 12) for intrusive rocks, all of our samples plot within the active continental margin or volcanic arc granite (VAG) fields, indicating that the felsic magmatic rocks in the Tongmushan district formed in an active continental margin setting related to Paleo-Asian Ocean subduction, which is basically consistent with the characteristics of Mesozoic ore-bearing porphyry in NE China, indicating the same mineralization attributes (Figure 12). Liu (2016) reported that the Early Cretaceous Beidagou granodiorite plots in the classic island-arc field and is characterized by relatively high Mg# (43–50), elevated εHf(t) values (+4.8 to +8.8), and low Rb/Sr ratios (0.09–0.13). Depleted-mantle model ages of 430–589 Ma, together with metaluminous and high-K calc-alkaline geochemistry, indicate a greater mantle contribution during the Early Cretaceous than during the Early Jurassic. In the Tongmushan district, Mg# values for all studied magmatic rocks range from 34.9 to 85.8 (average = 51.1), while Rb/Sr ratios vary from 0.02 to 1.86 (average = 0.21). These relatively high Mg# and low Rb/Sr ratios are comparable to those of the Beidagou district, suggesting asthenospheric upwelling and mafic underplating beneath an extensional Early Cretaceous lithosphere. Thus, although both the Beidagou and Tongmushan districts were situated within a subduction-related island-arc setting, they were locally overprinted by extension and infiltration of mantle-derived melts. Incompatible element ratios, such as those between La and La/Yb or La and La/Sm, serve as effective indicators for distinguishing whether the rock formation originated from fractional crystallization or partial melting processes (Chung et al., 2009). The positive correlations in La vs. La/Yb and La vs. La/Sm plots (Figure 13) demonstrate that partial melting processes have a dominant control over fractional crystallization. This aligns with the tendency of intermediate-acid rocks in our study to form via partial melting rather than fractional crystallization.
FIGURE 11
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
Regionally, the Mesozoic volcanic successions of northern Great Xing’an Range are intimately linked to the evolution of the Mongol–Okhotsk orogenic belt and the subduction of the Izanagi plate. During the Late Jurassic, closure of the Mongol–Okhotsk Ocean and the ensuing collision between the Siberian craton and the North China craton obstructed westward Pacific subduction, forcing the subduction zone to pivot toward the north or northwest (Maruyama, 1997; Sagong et al., 2005). This reorientation triggered a wholesale switch from compressional to extensional tectonics across NE China, culminating in Early Cretaceous delamination of previously thickened lower crust and rollback of the palaeo-Pacific slab beneath Eurasia. Delamination and subsequent asthenospheric upwelling produced the extensive Early Cretaceous granites and volcanic rocks of NE China. During the Early Cretaceous the thickened lower crust was stripped off from west to east, while the Pacific plate changed from low-angle flat-slab to high-angle rollback subduction, generating the observed inland-to-coast younging trend and the concomitant increase in alkaline components within the magmatic record (Wu et al., 2011).
6.3 Implication for porphyry mineralization
Magmatic water content represents a critical factor controlling porphyry deposit formation (Richards, 2003). Hydrous magmas not only promote greater oxidation and enhance extraction and transport of ore-forming components from source regions (Candela and Piccoli, 2005), but also facilitate fluid saturation and exsolution upon ascent to shallow crustal levels (5–8 km) due to the pressure-dependent decrease in water solubility. This process promotes the transfer of copper and other ore metals from the melt phase into the exsolving fluid phase (Richards, 2009). Water content is further reflected in whole-rock geochemical signatures, including elevated Sr/Y ratios (>30) and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios (>20). Loucks (2014) proposed that in hydrous magmatic systems, the crystallization sequence of amphibole-plagioclase-magnetite is modified such that early plagioclase and magnetite crystallization is suppressed, leading to Sr enrichment in residual melts and resultant high Sr/Y characteristics. The felsic rocks in the Tongmushan district exhibit Sr/Y values ranging from 5 to 73 (mean = 46.6), significantly exceeding 30, and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios between 20 and 43 (mean = 28.8), also above the threshold of 20. On the Al2O3/TiO2 versus Sr/Y discrimination diagram (Figure 14a), all Tongmushan samples plot within the hydrous magma field, indicating favorable conditions for porphyry mineralization.
FIGURE 14
Oxidized magmas are widely considered more conducive to the formation of porphyry- and epithermal-type Cu(-Au-Mo) deposits (Richards, 2003). Theoretical calculations and experimental studies predict that oxidized slab-derived melts and fluids destabilize sulfides in the subducting plate, thereby releasing substantial quantities of metals that supply the metal budget for subduction-related ore systems (Sun et al., 2013). Furthermore, highly oxidized magmas efficiently dissolve ore metals and enhance their transport and preservation. It is generally accepted that arc magmas with oxygen fugacities of ΔFMQ >0 to +2 are most favorable for porphyry deposit formation in subduction settings (Mungall, 2002). The felsic rocks in the Tongmushan district are characterized by elevated Fe2O3/FeO ratios (1.58–2.44, mean = 1.97). On the SiO2 versus Fe2O3/FeO discrimination diagram (Figure 14b), all samples plot within the magnetite-series granite field, and on the TFeO versus log10(Fe2O3/FeO) diagram (Figure 14c), most samples lie above the FMQ buffer, indicating strongly oxidized magmatic conditions favorable for porphyry mineralization. These petrochemical characteristics are consistent with those of Cretaceous ore-bearing porphyries in NE China, suggesting promising potential for deep porphyry exploration in the Tongmushan district (Figure 9).
Previous exploration has established that the most prospective targets in the Sandaowanzi gold district and its environs are Early Cretaceous continental volcanic-hosted, epithermal, low-to intermediate-sulfidation gold deposits genetically related to volcanism (Chen and Lü, 2021). Although the porphyry-style Cu–Mo mineralisation so far intersected in the adjacent Tongmushan district is of modest scale, integrated multi-element geochemical anomalies (Chen and Lü, 2021) reveal a distinct lateral zoning from porphyry Cu–Mo to shallow-level epithermal Au mineralisation. The new zircon U–Pb ages presented here demonstrate that intermediate–felsic magmatism and associated Cu–Mo-bearing hydrothermal activity were either coeval with, or immediately post-dated, Early Cretaceous volcanic–subvolcanic activity, thereby providing robust temporal evidence for a genetic link between the two styles of mineralisation. In principle, this configuration is compatible with a temperature–pressure continuum typical of a porphyry–epithermal ore-forming system. Rare-earth and trace-element signatures of the ore-bearing volcanic and intrusive rocks in the Tongmushan area closely match those of the newly discovered Baoquan porphyry Cu–Mo deposit located south of Heihe (Figure 10), further underscoring the porphyry potential of the Tongmushan district.
7 Conclusion
The newly discovered molybdenite-bearing quartz diorite porphyry in the Tongmushan district represents the Early Cretaceous porphyry Cu-Mo mineralization in the Nenjiang-Heihe metallogenic belt, establishing a significant breakthrough in exploring for porphyry ore bodies at depth beneath epithermal Au deposits.
The ore-bearing intrusions exhibit diagnostic geochemical signatures of fertile porphyry systems, including hydrous magma characteristics (elevated Sr/Y > 30 and Al2O3/TiO2 >20) and strongly oxidized conditions (Fe2O3/FeO >1.5, magnetite-series affinity), comparable to Cretaceous ore-bearing porphyries elsewhere in NE China.
The Tongmushan porphyry Cu-Mo mineralization formed in an active continental margin setting related to Paleo-Asian Ocean subduction, locally overprinted by Early Cretaceous extension and mantle-derived melt infiltration, demonstrating a genetic and temporal continuum with regional epithermal Au systems and highlighting promising potential for deep porphyry exploration in this belt.
Statements
Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Author contributions
WZ: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. LX-D: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Resources, Writing – review and editing. WJ: Data curation, Investigation, Validation, Writing – review and editing. LC-L: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Writing – review and editing. WZ-L: Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Resources, Software, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. YY: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review and editing. YM-W: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review and editing. LM-Q: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review and editing. MA: Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing.
Funding
The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This research was financially supported by Deep Earth Probe and Mineral Resources Exploration - National Science and Technology Major Project (No. 2025ZD1008700); Heilongjiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China (No. ZL 2024D005); National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 42302035).
Conflict of interest
The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2026.1776216/full#supplementary-material
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Summary
Keywords
early cretaceous, great Xing’an range, porphyry Cu-Mo, Re-Os geochronology, zircon U-Pb
Citation
Zhuo W, Xu-Dong L, Jin W, Cheng-Lu L, Zhao-Lin W, Yuqing Y, Mao-Wen Y, Ming-Qi L and Alam M (2026) Early cretaceous molybdenum-bearing felsic magmatic rocks in the tongmushan district, northern great Xing’an range: implications for mesozoic porphyry metallogenesis. Front. Earth Sci. 14:1776216. doi: 10.3389/feart.2026.1776216
Received
27 December 2025
Revised
03 March 2026
Accepted
09 March 2026
Published
01 April 2026
Volume
14 - 2026
Edited by
Kit Lai, Fortescue Metals Group, Australia
Reviewed by
Qinglin Xu, Shandong University of Science and Technology, China
Maoqiang Yan, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), China
Updates
Copyright
© 2026 Zhuo, Xu-Dong, Jin, Cheng-Lu, Zhao-Lin, Yuqing, Mao-Wen, Ming-Qi and Alam.
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*Correspondence: Li Xu-Dong, xudongli1982@163.com; Wang Zhao-Lin, 75297471@qq.com
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