Pathways of development of oxide dispersion-strengthened alloys

Oxide dispersion-strengthened (ODS) alloys are considered promising structural materials for advanced applications, particularly in nuclear reactors, due to their excellent high-temperature strength and creep, oxidation, and irradiation resistance. They achieve these properties through a homogeneous dispersion of stable oxide nanoparticles in a metallic matrix, impeding dislocation motion. The main differences between conventional ODS alloys and newly developed ODS nanocomposites are also focused in this review. A recent state-of-the-art summary devoted to their processing, properties, and application potential is presented in the paper. Although traditional manufacturing methods such as mechanical alloying (MA) and subsequent consolidation are already approved, additive manufacturing (AM) is an emerging technology offering the potential to produce parts of complex geometries. Thus, the review also deals with the problems of 3D printing of ODS alloys. The prospects for ODS nanocomposites are critically assessed.

GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

1 Introduction

Industrial development enforces pushing the boundaries of performance and sustainability, and this requires more and more advanced materials. This can be achieved by innovative techniques leading to unconventional microstructures with specific mechanical and physical properties and new application possibilities. One of these techniques is a combination of powder metallurgy followed by thermomechanical processing, leading to microstructures consisting of a metal matrix with dispersed stable nanoparticles as oxide dispersion-strengthened (ODS) alloys. Such a strategy paves the way for next-generation high-temperature applications in aerospace, energy, and industrial sectors requiring top creep oxidation and irradiation resistance, as well as long-term thermal stability. Significantly higher volume fraction of nano-oxides compared to classical ODS alloys may play an important role in further enhancing the high-temperature strength and neutron irradiation (Yang et al., 2023), along with pinning dislocations and grain boundaries, to prevent dislocation motion and grain boundary migration at high temperatures (Richter et al., 2017). Moreover, different oxides may coarsen with different kinetics, and coarse oxides are relatively more stable than fine oxides due to the cubic coarsening law. To achieve the same strengthening effect, significantly coarser oxides of volume content of 5% can be used instead of very fine oxides with a much lower volume content below 1%. Such ODS alloys can be called nanocomposites, which are considered a special class of ODS materials with a better coarsening resistance in this review.

1.1 ODS alloys

ODS alloys are characterized by oxide particles homogeneously dispersed in a metallic matrix, resulting in exceptional mechanical properties in high-temperature environments (Schaeublin et al., 2002; Klimiankou et al., 2003; Miller et al., 2004; Schneibel et al., 2009). The matrix of the ODS alloy is usually ferritic (Fe-based), and the most stable dispersed oxides, playing the decisive role in strengthening, are based on elements with highest affinity to O such as Y, Zr, Ti, and Al (Dou et al., 2020). The excellent oxidation resistance of the ODS alloys is ensured by a sufficient content of Al and Cr in the matrix (Gamanov et al., 2022). The improvement of creep resistance of the ODS alloys is achieved not only by sufficient refinement of oxides but also by increasing their volume fraction. The typical volume fraction of dispersed spherical nano-oxides is approximately 1%, and their mean size is 5–30 nm.

Nano-oxides in ODS alloys of a sufficiently high number density have a strong pinning effect on dislocations and grain boundaries (Ukai et al., 1998; 2020; Akasaka et al., 2004; Miller et al., 2006; 2015; Alinger et al., 2009; Li et al., 2011). The nano-oxides can also promote the recombination of point defects caused by irradiation, including the recombination of vacancies and self-interstitial atoms, suppressing radiation damage (Odette et al., 2008). Thus, due to their excellent radiation resistance and high-temperature strength, ODS alloys are candidate materials for fuel cladding of fast fission reactors and the first wall/cladding of fusion reactors (Wang and Shen, 2023).

The very first ODS Fe-based alloy was prepared in 1967 (De Bremaecker, 2012). The investigation of ODS alloys as irradiation-resistant materials was initiated by a Nature paper in 1967 (Cawthorne and Fulton, 1967), reporting voids formed in austenitic grains of samples of irradiated material intended for subsequent mechanical testing. Shortly thereafter, this detrimental feature was used by Huet as an argument favoring ODS ferritic alloys (Huet et al., 1968; Huet and Leroy, 1974; De Bremaecker, 2012). In the end of the 20th Century and in the beginning of the 21st Century, the ODS alloys were commercialized and are represented by MA956 or MA957 (Bartsch et al., 1999; Miller et al., 2004; Toloczko et al., 2004; Hadraba et al., 2011; Ribis and Lozano-Perez, 2014; Mo et al., 2016), PM 2000 or PM 2010 (Jung et al., 2017), ODM alloys (Hadraba et al., 2011; Siska et al., 2022), and 1DK or 1DS (Ukai et al., 1993b). The non-commercially produced, experimental and advanced versions of ODS alloys are ODS Eurofer (Yu et al., 2005; Kolluri et al., 2013; Zilnyk et al., 2015; Mazzone et al., 2017; Bergner et al., 2018; Klimenkov et al., 2021; Kumar et al., 2021), 12YWT (Rahmanifard et al., 2010; 2015), 14YWT (McClintock et al., 2009; Hoelzer et al., 2016; Pal et al., 2018; Auger et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2022), and 9YWT (Byun et al., 2014). Research on 14YWT (Hoelzer et al., 2016) showed that mechanical properties of ODS alloys can significantly be improved via optimized processing involving controlled thermomechanical treatment and a reduction in the amount of N and C introduced during mechanical alloying (MA). Very recently, Smith et al. (2023) developed a new ODS NiCoCr-based alloy (called GRX-810), intended by NASA for the construction of the combustor dome. This ODS alloy is consolidated by laser powder bed fusion to disperse nano-sized Y₂O₃ particles, deposited on the alloy powder surfaces, in the bulk without the use of resource-intensive processing steps such as MA or in situ alloying (Hadraba et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2020).

Traditionally, powder metallurgy, consisting of MA and subsequent hot consolidation, is the most commonly used manufacturing method of ODS alloys (Spartacus et al., 2022). The development of ODS alloys produced by MA was initiated by Benjamin (1970). MA, allowing the production of highly homogeneous powders from elemental powder mixtures, initiated the production of ODS nickel-based superalloys. Benjamin et al. (1970) were seeking an alloy that would be strengthened by γ′ precipitates at room and elevated temperatures and hardened by oxide dispersion at high temperatures. The ODS Ni-based superalloy produced by Karak et al. (2013) contained 0.5% of 5-nm-sized Y₂O₃ dispersion. From that time, the ferritic, ferritic–martensitic (FM), and austenitic ODS alloys became a permanent research topic (Benjamin J. S., 1970; Benjamin, 1976; Suryanarayana, 1996; 2001; 2019; 2022; Lu et al., 1998; Murty and Ranganathan, 1998; Gilman and Benjamin, 2003; Martin and Heilmaier, 2004; Oksiuta and Baluc, 2009; Rahmanifard et al., 2010; Karak et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014; Sanctis et al., 2017; Neikov, 2019; El-Eskandarany, 2020).

The applicability of the ferritic ODS alloys is not limited by the austenitization temperature; thus, they can be used at very high temperatures quite near to their melting point in energy, aircraft, and aerospace applications. The oxidation- and creep-resistant Fe–Cr–Al-based ODS alloys such as INCOLOY MA956 and PM2000, with 0.5 wt% of Y₂O₃ on the input before MA, exhibit top strength and oxidation resistance up to 1,200 °C. Systematic investigations on the chemical composition of nano-oxides in the consolidated Fe–Cr–Al-based ODS alloys showed Al–Y mixed oxides different from input Y₂O₃. Mixed Y–Al oxides have been identified as 3Y₂O₃·5Al₂O₃ (tetragonal, YAG), Y₂O₃·Al₂O₃ (Al-perovskite, YAP or hexagonal, YAH), and 2Y₂O₃·Al₂O₃ (monoclinic, YAM) (Singh et al., 2022). This is because excess O is introduced into the system either through oxidized input powder surfaces or during processing, and another element with a high affinity for O, such as Al, is also used for oxide formation. Then, the fraction of oxides in the ODS alloys is commonly significantly higher than the fraction of input Y₂O₃. A similar situation occurs also in the case of microalloying by Zr and/or Ti. The utilization of very stable oxide dispersion as a strengthening agent at temperatures above 1,000 °C is inevitable as other strengthening particles such as carbides, nitrides, or intermetallic phases such as γ′ coarsen much faster or even dissolve (Dubiel and Czyrska-Filemonowicz, 2000). It must also be noted that different oxides may coarsen with different kinetics, and coarse oxides are relatively more stable than fine oxides due to the cubic coarsening law.

1.2 ODS nanocomposites

The pathway of development of the ODS Fe–Al-based alloys to new ODS nanocomposites with 5 vol% of nanoparticles is also presented in this review. It is following to the nanostructured ferritic alloys (NFAs), developed in Oak Division Ridge National Laboratory (Hoelzer, 2018). The grain sizes of the bcc alloy matrix in NFAs are typically between 100 and 200 nm (Murphy et al., 2025).

Exploring the simplest ODS nanocomposites consisting of a ferritic Fe–Al matrix strengthened with volume fractions approximately from 6% to 10% of Al₂O₃ nanoparticles started in 2015. From today’s perspective, these efforts can be considered unsuccessful because the high-temperature strength and creep properties of these nanocomposites were not satisfactory. Such exerted effort, however, showed that a significant increase in the volume fraction of oxides is passable. This motivated the development of new coarse-grained (CG) ferritic ODS nanocomposites with chemical composition Fe–10Al–4Cr–4Y₂O₃ (in wt%) (later called FeAlOY), strengthened with 5 vol% of mixed Y–Al-based 20-nm-sized nano-oxides (Dymáček et al., 2019a). The microstructure of the ODS nano-oxide is presented in Figure 1 (Dymáček et al., 2022).

Figure 1

Figure 1. Microstructure of ODS nano-oxides: (a) ultrafine grains (SEM) and (b) nano-precipitates of Y₂O₃ (TEM) (Dymáček et al., 2022).

During this decade, the excellent cyclic strength of FeAlOY at 1,000 °C and 1,200 °C, reporting a nearly temperature-independent deformation mechanism, was measured by Šulák et al. (2024). Moreover, this material exhibits long-term oxidation resistance up to 1,300 °C, long-term stability of strengthening nano-dispersoid up to 1,300 °C, top creep resistance at 1,100 °C–1,300 °C significantly exceeding the ODS alloy MA956, nearly no primary creep and very low steady-state creep rates at 1,100 °C–1,200 °C, good machinability in secondary recrystallized state, and good hot formability in the nano-crystalline state after hot consolidation (Dymáček et al., 2019b; 2019a; 2024; Svoboda et al., 2023).

2 Processing of ODS alloys and nanocomposites

2.1 Processing

The most common production of ODS alloys involves MA, hot consolidation, and thermomechanical treatment. The production of ODS alloys is a very complex process. Each of these steps can be influenced by a number of factors and parameters, offering a vast field for optimization. For a particular application, a compromise always has to be found between the properties of the final product and the overall complexity of the preparation, along with energy and time consumption or costs.

2.2 Effect of MA on the homogeneity of nano-oxide dispersion and properties of ODS alloys

The production of ODS alloys generally consists of several steps. First, a mechanically alloyed powder of the desired composition and quality is prepared by MA. During the first step of MA, the inputs of appropriate proportions, for example, elemental powders in respective proportions, along with the grinding media (e.g. milling balls), are loaded in the milling container (Figure 2a). It is necessary to distinguish between laboratories and industry. The laboratory mills allow MA of batches from grams to kilograms, whereas the industrial mills allow MA of batches of hundreds of kilograms. During MA itself, the milling balls collide, and powder particles are cold-forged onto the balls (Figure 2b) to form growing protrusions (Figure 2c). Large protrusions break off as large particles (Figure 2d), and they are crumbled again to small particles (Figure 2e). Processes (b)–(e) are repeated until sufficient powder homogenization is achieved, with the oxides either completely dissolved or very finely dispersed in the matrix (Figure 2f) (Suryanarayana et al., 2001; Svoboda et al., 2023).

Figure 2

Figure 2. Mechanical alloying principle and processing of ODS alloys: (a) the inputs of appropriate proportions in respective proportions, and small powder particles are cold-forged onto the balls (b), growing protrusions, (c) large protrusions break off as large particles and (d) crumbled to small ones, and they are crumbled again to small ones (e). These processes are repeated up to a sufficient powder homogenization (f).

MA is an important tool for the preparation of nano-crystals, nanocomposites, and nanoparticles through the so-called top-down approach, where the nanoscaled material is achieved by a significant reduction in the size of inputs and their homogenization. This differs from the bottom-up approach, where the nano-material is built using sophisticated methods from the basic building units or atoms and molecules (Xia, 2008; Xia, 2010). MA is carried out in ball mills (attritors) of many different designs that are adapted to specific applications (different capacities, grinding efficiency, etc.). During effective MA, a sufficient number of protrusions must be formed, broken off, and crumbled. Generally, if the powders are too hard, the powder only grinds to a certain fineness and does not homogenize. In the opposite worse-case scenario of too soft powders (usually powders with the fcc lattice such as Al, Cu, or Ni), all powder sticks on the balls and container walls, making its removal rather complicated. In such a case, the soft powder can be added gradually in several steps, or some milling agents such as organic compounds can be added to prevent sticking. The degree of chemical homogenization depends on the grinding time. However, after a certain time, a saturation limit is reached, after which no further improvement in powder quality occurs, and only powder contamination from grinding equipment increases (Svoboda et al., 2022).

It was found that input powders can completely dissolve in the matrix, if MA is sufficiently intensive and lasts long enough. In the case of ODS alloys with the addition of Y₂O₃ powder, the Y₂O₃ powder may completely dissolve, and O and Y atoms trap at drastically multiplied defects, such as dislocations and vacancies, during MA (Oono and Ukai, 2018; Svoboda et al., 2019). Re-precipitation of Y₂O₃ nano-oxides is then conditioned by a significant decrease in defect density during hot consolidation and subsequent heat treatment (Svoboda et al., 2022). Generally, MA and trapping allow homogenization of immiscible systems. MA and subsequent hot consolidation may lead to the formation of ultrafine-grained materials with dispersed nanostructured phases. These materials cannot be achieved by conventional processing such as casting (Suryanarayana, 2001; 2019). The microstructure of powders after MA depends on the intensity of MA and inputs (although Al₂O₃ is rather hard and cannot be significantly refined and or dissolved by MA, much softer Y₂O₃ can be completely dissolved). The optimization and control of the MA remain a challenge, which can lead to making the processing cheaper and properties of ODS alloys better.

2.3 Effect of hot consolidation and thermomechanical treatment on the microstructure and properties of ODS alloys

In the next steps, this powder is compacted and then either heat-treated or thermomechanically processed, with the latter providing both steps simultaneously. Suryanarayana and Al-Aqeeli (2013) discussed a wide range of mechanically alloyed nanocomposites. Only a few nanocomposites have been prepared by high-temperature consolidation. In the vast majority of cases, subsequent heat treatment was required to produce a nanocomposite with the desired properties. There are a number of different hot consolidation technologies, including hot isostatic pressing (HIP) (Atkinson and Davies, 2000), spark plasma sintering (SPS) (Fu et al., 2019), hot extrusion (HE) (Bergner et al., 2016), hot rolling (HR), hot rotary swaging (HRS) (Svoboda et al., 2023), hot forging (HF) (Khalaj et al., 2021), and alternative methods (Bergner et al., 2016). Moreover, additive manufacturing (AM) is currently experiencing significant growth (Wilms et al., 2023b). By using these methods or their combinations [see, e.g., Bergner et al. (2016); Deng et al. (2022)], different parameters of the final product can be achieved. Some technologies enable not only the consolidation of powder itself but also its shaping into a final or near-final form. The individual methods differ in a number of aspects—such as the achievable size or volume of the semi-finished product, isotropy of microstructure and properties, residual porosity, and technological, economic, or time requirements. A comprehensive comparison of different solid-state consolidation methods was summarized by deJong et al. (2024).

Main features of individual methods can be summarized as follows:

In hot pressing, the pressure is applied uniaxially at high temperatures, where the main constituent of the alloying system is in the plastic deformation regime. Simultaneous heating and pressurization enhance contact, diffusion, and flow between powder particles, reduce the sintering temperature and time, and suppress the growth of crystal grains. Hot-pressed parts usually have low porosity, fine grains, and good surface properties. Main drawbacks are limited scalability and high costs of equipment, which is also prone to wear (Lemoisson and Froyen, 2005).

During HIP, high temperature and isostatic pressure are applied simultaneously. This process can be used to produce complex shapes and geometries of products and can also be used to heal defects and decrease porosity. The main advantage is that the process provides uniform deformation in all directions and uniform density. In the case of hot consolidation of powders, the powder must be canned, which is not the case of specimens already involving closed pores. The grains are equiaxed, but sometimes, their size distribution is wide or even bimodal (deJong et al., 2024). HIP could be followed by another post-consolidation techniques such as cold rolling, HR, HF, or HRS, leading to microstructure changes with effects on the mechanical properties (Gao et al., 2015; Macías-Delgado et al., 2018; Ha and Kimura, 2019; Li et al., 2020; Shen et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2025).

SPS generates heat by passing a high-pulsed direct current through a graphite die, and the sintering process is assisted by uniaxial pressure. It heats the powder compact directly, thus achieving very high thermal efficiency. As a result, material densification by SPS is generally very fast (i.e., within a few minutes) and can be achieved at much lower temperatures than those used in conventional sintering probably because heat production dominates in the necks (contacts of powder particles). The main drawback is the limited volume of the sintered material and the need to avoid carbonization. Moreover, the thermal gradients inside larger samples can lead to microstructure inhomogeneity (El-Eskandarany, 2015). After SPS, the typical size of nearly dislocation-free grain ranges from 1 to 5 μm. This does not provide a sufficient driving force for overcoming the pinning effect of oxides necessary for provoking the abnormal grain growth.

To achieve ultra-coarse-grained materials, a large amount of energy must be stored during hot consolidation to provide sufficient driving force to initiate abnormal grain growth or secondary recrystallization during subsequent heat treatment. This cannot be achieved by HIP or SPS. This is allowed by methods linked to large hot deformations, such as HE, HR, or HRS.

HE is a traditional method based on extruding a powder-filled capsule to produce ODS steel products with a constant cross-section, even in relatively large sizes. The HE itself involves significant plastic deformation. One of the microstructural characteristics is the formation of ultrafine columnar grains, parallel to the extrusion direction being able to recrystallize into huge, elongated grains due to abnormal growth. This results in anisotropic mechanical properties in the transverse and longitudinal directions (Oksiuta et al., 2009; Rouffié et al., 2013).

HR is, in majority of cases, used as a post-consolidation process, but it also represents a promising hot consolidation technology (Gao et al., 2015; Macías-Delgado et al., 2018; Li et al., 2020; Sun et al., 2025). Svoboda et al. (2020a) proved that it can be used as a stand-alone technology to produce sheets with ultrafine nearly equiaxed grains. After the subsequent heat treatment, the abnormal grain growth leads to rather large pancake-shaped grains in the rolling plane. In terms of ease of production and economic attractiveness, the properly optimized rolling technology is one of the most promising methods for preparing ODS alloys.

HRS is mostly used as a post-consolidation technique; however, it is also applicable as a direct consolidation method. The same alloy that was consolidated by HR was also consolidated by HRS, during which the bar is shaped by high-frequency impacts from rotating dies. Some experiments indicate that the creep resistance of material prepared in this way is better than that of HR-processed material (Svoboda et al., 2020a).

HF is mostly used as an effective method for shaping material that has already been consolidated. It has been shown that HF is advantageous when applied to the ultrafine-grained state as the ODS alloy is softer and more ductile at high temperatures, and the shaped part can be recrystallized subsequently (Ukai et al., 2013; Gamanov et al., 2023).

Severe plastic deformation methods (SPDs), such as high-pressure torsion (HPT) and equal channel angular pressing (ECAP), have exhibited great potential in producing bulk nanostructured materials with enhanced mechanical properties. The consolidation can be achieved at much lower temperatures in much shorter times than those used in conventional powder metallurgy (Xia, 2008; Xia, 2010). The sizes of the consolidated parts are, however, rather small.

3 Selection of the matrix and strengthening dispersion for ODS alloys

The excellent mechanical and oxidation properties are due to the synergistic effect of the proper chemical composition of the matrix and the reinforcing effect of nano-oxides.

3.1 Matrix

It is understandable that, to save money and time, when selecting a material for a particular application, the aim is to make the most of conventional, industrially processable materials that have been sufficiently investigated and characterized. Materials for fast fission and fusion applications require significant modifications, or in some cases, new materials have to be developed. Moreover, elements with high activation such as Ni, Cu, N, Mo, or Nb have to be discarded as, although nuclear fusion does not produce nuclear waste, the plant body itself can become radioactive. The goal of the “Hands on level” strategy is development of an irradiation-resistant material that can be safely handled even after 100 years of operation (Liao et al., 2019).

In general, austenitic, ferritic, and FM matrices can be used in the ODS alloys (Luptáková et al., 2024). Until now, most of research is targeted on ODS alloys with ferritic and/or FM matrices, whereas austenitic ODS alloys received only limited attention (Phaniraj et al., 2009; Oka et al., 2011). For the FM matrix, α→γ transformation occurs at approximately 850 °C, which limits the application temperature due to volume change of α→γ transformation (Sallez et al., 2015). Homogenization in austenite and diffusion-less martensitic transformation, however, helps provide an isotropic and homogeneous microstructure, which improves the material properties (Kim et al., 2016). The martensitic ODS steel has a lath martensitic structure and high dislocation density, which ensure better irradiation resistance; it is, however, not sufficiently stable at elevated temperatures.

Austenitic ODS alloys are much less common as their MA is rather difficult compared to ferritic ODS alloys (Seils et al., 2020). The powder particles of austenitic steels often remain stuck at the milling ball surfaces, and a de-wetting agent such as stearic acid is necessary to be added (Suryanarayana, 2011). This finally worsens the properties (Gräning et al., 2019). These materials are also more prone to He embrittlement (Yvon and Carré, 2009; Raman et al., 2016). Although the resistance to radiation swelling due to the action of fast neutrons is significantly increased by oxide dispersion, the presence of Ni with high activation represents an application barrier. In contrary, austenitic alloys have better creep properties and lower diffusion coefficients than ferritic or ferritic–martensitic alloys due to the fcc lattice (Kimura et al., 2011).

In contrast to austenitic ODS alloys, ferritic ODS alloys are stable over the entire temperature range up to the melting point, and the microstructure can be controlled by proper processing (Ukai et al., 1993b). Generally, the resistance to the coarsening of nano-oxides (and thus the long-term stability of the creep properties) is due to the very low solubility of O in the matrix, which is gettered by elements with a high affinity to O (Fischer et al., 2010). This factor is more advantageous for ferritic ODS alloys than for austenitic ODS alloys as the solubility of interstitial elements, such as O, is generally much lower in the bcc lattice than in the fcc lattice. Both ferritic and ferritic–martensitic matrices have a high resistance to radiation swelling. Their biggest disadvantage is the significant grain anisotropy after high-temperature consolidation and thermomechanical processing (some authors refer to these as bamboo grains), which causes a significant difference in mechanical properties between the longitudinal and transverse directions (El-Genk and Tournier, 2005). This could be, however, in some cases, advantageous.

3.2 Oxides

In conventional steels, carbides are the most common strengthening particles, which spontaneously precipitate from supersaturated solid solution after γ→α transformation. The solubility of O in solid Fe alloyed by Y and Al is, however, generally very small, and precipitation of a sufficient amount of strengthening oxides cannot be achieved. However, Svoboda et al. (2020a) found that in a drastically deformed matrix after MA, defects (dislocations and vacancies) act as O and Y traps, allowing their “dissolution” in amounts several orders of magnitude higher than the solubility limit. Moreover, trapped atoms block the movement of dislocations and limit their recovery, allowing dissolution up to 4 wt. % of Y₂O₃ in the matrix (Svoboda et al., 2020a). During the hot consolidation processes, the defect density is significantly reduced, which causes a huge supersaturation of O and Y in the matrix, providing driving force for oxide precipitation.

The reason for strengthening by oxides consists in their thermal stability against dissolution and coarsening. A useful tool for assessing the thermal stability of oxides is the Ellingham diagram (see Figure 3), which shows the dependence of the standard Gibbs reaction energy of oxide formation on temperature (Ellingham, 1944; Hoffmann et al., 2013; Stratton, 2013).

Figure 3

Figure 3. Ellingham diagram showing the dependence of the standard Gibbs reaction energy of oxide formation on temperature. The figure was modified based on this work (Ellingham, 1944).

Y-based oxides exhibit the best stability and have been investigated in many papers (Ukai et al., 1997; Hoffmann et al., 2013). According to Ukai et al. (1997), the ODS alloys strengthened by mixed Ti–Y oxides have even better thermal stability and creep properties than those strengthened by Y₂O₃ or TiO₂ alone (Ukai et al., 1997). The ODS alloys with the addition of metallic La, Sc, and Ce, leading to the precipitation of complex oxides, have also been investigated. These complex oxides were often found to be finer than the corresponding single element oxides (Hoffmann et al., 2013; Husák et al., 2019; Stratil et al., 2020). An example of dispersion of mixed oxides based on Y and elements of the IIIB and IVB groups is presented in Figure 4, with particle size distributions (Husák et al., 2019). The size of nano-oxides immediately after processing is less important than their resistance to coarsening during high-temperature exposure, which is crucial.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Particle sizes of complex oxides based on Y and elements of the IIIB group (lanthanum and scandium) and IVB group (cerium, hafnium, and zirconium) in EUROFER steel (Husák et al., 2019).

Svoboda et al. (2018) and Svoboda et al. (2020a) dealt with the processing and properties of minimalistic ODS nanocomposite with a composition of Fe–12Al–1.2O strengthened by Al₂O₃ dispersion. As the hard Al₂O₃ powders cannot be dissolved or sufficiently fragmented by MA, O was introduced from the O₂ gas inflated to the milling container. Strengthening by Al₂O₃ was found to be inappropriate as their coarsening kinetics is two orders of magnitude faster than of that of Y₂O₃ (Svoboda et al., 2018; Svoboda et al., 2022; Stratil et al., 2020).

Svoboda et al. (2022) found that the addition of metallic Y to the FeAlOY nanocomposite significantly affects its strength at 1,100 °C, with a strain rate of 10⁻⁶s^-1, which increases linearly with Y addition up to 1 wt%, where the strength is approximately twice that of the FeAlOY without added Y. In hindsight, we believe that the significant change in strength is due to the gradual shift in the chemical composition of oxides, from mixed Al–Y types to pure Y₂O₃. Yutani et al. (2007) investigated nano-oxides of ODS alloys without and with the Al content in the matrix. It was found that the material with the addition of Al tends to form complex Y–Al–O oxides, which, unlike the aforementioned complexes, have a higher tendency to coarsen and thus deteriorate in mechanical properties (Kasada et al., 2007). Such behavior is presented in Figure 5, where larger elliptical particles are identified as mixed Y–Al oxides (Bártková et al., 2025). However, Al alloying provides a number of benefits, and therefore, another strategy is to prevent the formation of complex Y–Al–O oxides by other means rather than limiting Al alloying. For these purposes, Svoboda et al. (2022) used 1 wt% of metallic Y granulates as input component in addition to Y₂O₃. Y reacts with O that entered MA equipment, for example, oxidized surfaces of the input Fe or Al powders (Svoboda et al., 2022). The content of excess O in the common systems of ODS alloys can be estimated to be approximately 0.2 wt. %. Excess O can also stem from oxidation during MA and handling of powders. In the absence of other elements with a high affinity for O, such as Al, Cr, Zn, Zr, Ti, or additional Y, formed mixed oxide is significantly less resistant to coarsening. Although the nanostructure of oxides could seem promising after processing, applicability of such ODS alloys may be limited.

Figure 5

Figure 5. EDS analysis of larger oxide particles containing Y, Al, and O in FeAlOY (Bártková et al., 2025).

Ukai et al. (1993a) examined the effect of adding Y₂0₃, Ti, TiO₂, Al, and Nb on mechanical properties of ODS alloys used at elevated temperatures. Nb was found to provide the best creep rupture strength; Nb additions resulted in the highest ultimate tensile strength, and TiO₂ additions resulted in the highest ductility at elevated temperature.

4 Oxidation and corrosion resistance

Nowadays, one of the options for reducing CO₂ emissions is Generation IV nuclear fission plants. They aim at performance improvement, new principles of utilization of nuclear energy, and/or more sustainable approaches to the management of nuclear materials. High-temperature systems open new possibilities of heat applications, including emission-free hydrogen production. Existing concepts involve the gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR), lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR), molten salt reactor (MSR), supercritical water-cooled reactor (SCWR), sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR), and very high-temperature reactor (VHTR). This demands irradiation-resistant materials designed for long-term operation at very high temperatures in oxidation/corrosive environments (Quadakkers, 1993).

The corrosion resistance of common steels is usually increased by high-Cr alloying (Huntz et al., 2007; Yuan et al., 2014), Al alloying (Fujikawa and Newcomb, 2012), or their combination (Liu et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2015). In the case of high-Cr steels, the Cr₂O₃-protective oxide layer is formed (Huntz et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2015), which, however, evaporates in water-containing atmospheres in the form of volatile CrO₂(OH)₂, according to Equation 1 (Opila, 2004; Saunders et al., 2008; Romedenne et al., 2021):

$\raisebox{1ex}{$1$}\!\left/ \!\raisebox{-1ex}{$2$}\right.{Cr}_2{O}_3\left(s\right)+\raisebox{1ex}{$3$}\!\left/ \!\raisebox{-1ex}{$4$}\right.O_2\left(g\right)+H_{2}O\left(g\right)\to {Cr}_2{O}_2{\left(OH\right)}_2\left(g\right).(1)$

This reaction is activated at temperatures over 600 °C and depends on the chemistry of the environment (Yamauchi et al., 2003). Next to it, under the dry atmosphere above 900 °C, Cr₂O₃ readily oxidizes to volatile CrO₃ (Berthod, 2005). Both reactions reduce the surface oxide layer and decrease oxidation resistance (Yamauchi et al., 2003; Berthod, 2005). Moreover, the high Cr content in steels significantly enhances the irradiation-induced brittleness (Šćepanović et al., 2016; Šćepanović et al., 2018). Some studies tried to improve the corrosion resistance of 9–12 wt. % Cr steels by adding Si to form a more stable and compact SiO₂ surface layer (Huntz et al., 2003). Nevertheless, a high chromium content leads to the formation of the chromium-rich αʹ phase, which is brittle and degrades the mechanical properties. Therefore, adding some different corrosion-resistant elements instead of Cr is proposed (Azevedo and Padilha, 2019).

Al₂O₃ is used as a significantly more stable thin and compact protective layer on steels and many other alloys. Its formation is dependent on an aluminum content of several atomic percent. Zhang et al. (2006) derived the theoretical threshold for the critical Al content in steels required to form a protective Al₂O₃ layer, which is used as a significantly more stable thin and compact protective layer on steels, and the layer was found to be 3.9 at% when oxidizing at 1,000 °C. However, some studies, for example, Zhang et al. (2006) also showed that in reality, even with 10 at% of Al, the steel protective layer consists of mixed Fe–Al oxides.

Alloying with both Cr and Al has a significant synergistic effect. In Fe–Cr–Al alloys, Cr acts as a “third element” (Ren et al., 2022b; Chen et al., 2024; Song et al., 2025), and its presence enhances the formation of a protective Al₂O₃ layer, which is utilized as a significantly more stable thin and compact protective layer on steels, even when the Al content is relatively low. This effect is particularly relevant in high-temperature applications where oxidation resistance is essential.

Regarding corrosion/oxidation resistance of ODS alloys, the situation is similar. The demands on the ODS alloys are, however, much higher as their high-temperature mechanical properties significantly exceed those of the steels, and thus, they are intended to be applied under much more severe conditions. The presence of oxide dispersion reduces cation diffusion in the oxide layer, causing its slower growth mainly by oxygen grain boundary transport Quadakkers (1993). Moreover, the oxide surface layer on ODS alloys exhibits improved adherence, enhanced selective oxidation, and decreased grain size compared to steels. As the grain size in the oxide layer increases with time, its growth kinetics obey a sub-parabolic time dependence, especially in the case of alumina forming Fe-based ODS alloys (Quadakkers, 1990).

Corrosion rate equation can be expressed in Equation 2:

$∆W=k_{eff}\exp \left(-\frac{Q}{RT}\right)t^{1/n},(2)$

where ΔW is the weight gain of corrosion products, k_eff is the effective corrosion rate constant, 1/n is the time exponent, t is the corrosion time, Q is the molar activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. The typical time exponent of ODS ferritic alloys is ranging from 0.38 to 0.47, which are smaller than typical 0.5 for ferritic steels, corresponding to a parabolic corrosion rule (Chen et al., 2007).

To improve Al₂O₃ adherence, different Al-containing ODS alloys have been developed, and their oxidation resistance has been tested (Quadakkers et al., 2000). All these alloys spontaneously form a protective and adherent α-Al₂O₃ layer, which is used as a significantly more stable thin and compact protective layer on steels at high temperatures in the air. When the Al content in the bulk falls below a critical value due to long oxidation, the formation of alumina is replaced by that of Cr and Fe oxides, with significantly lower protective characteristics (Maréchal et al., 2003).

The long-term oxidation resistance can be drastically increased by the addition of sufficient amounts of Al, as shown for steels by Xu et al. (2015), and for the top creep-resistant ODS alloys, such as MA 956 and PM 2000, containing approximately 5 wt% of Al. Then, the oxidation resistance extends to temperatures up to 1,300 °C (Schneibel et al., 2009). The positive effect of Al addition is enhanced by the increased Cr content, as demonstrated by Ren et al. (2022b), showing that only 3 wt% of Al in Fe–16Cr ODS steel drastically improved the oxidation resistance at 1,000 °C. Moreover, nano-oxides present in the bulk could also adhere to the oxide layer (Li et al., 2021).

An interesting effect was observed by Gamanov et al. (2022), who demonstrated that during the growth of the alumina surface layer, the Y₂O₃ nano-oxides near to the surface transform to Al–Y mixed oxides and that released Y allows the formation of YAG grains in the alumina surface layer.

In the absence of Al, Wang et al. (2023) demonstrated that the addition of Si to Fe–12Cr ODS alloys increased the already excellent corrosion resistance by factor of 10 and allowed the formation of a SiO₂ protective layer. Moreover, corrosion resistance is increased by the increased grain boundary density and nano-oxides’ number density (Wang et al., 2023). Cr and Al affect not only corrosion resistance but also final grain and oxide dispersion morphologies (Ha et al., 2013). However, the details of the effects have not been fully understood yet.

Regarding the oxidation resistance of ODS alloys based on FeCrAl, some studies have reported minimal differences between dry air and water vapor environments (Unocic et al., 2012; Lipkina et al., 2020), whereas others documented substantial variations in oxidation rates, scale composition, and microstructure (Unocic et al., 2015; Lipkina et al., 2020). The observed discrepancies may result from differing exposure conditions and evaluation timeframes for the alloys (Lipkina et al., 2020). For this reason, several oxidation kinetics of various ODS alloys in different atmospheres are listed in Table 1, where k_p is the oxidation kinetics (g²/cm⁴. s).

Table 1

Table 1. Oxidation kinetics of various alloys in different atmospheres.

The kinetic coefficient k_p follows the Arrhenius relationship (Lipkina et al., 2020). k_p is defined in Equation 3, where k₀ is the pre-exponential constant (unit is the same as for k_p), Q is the activation energy [kJ mol^-1], R is the universal gas constant (8.314 [J K⁻¹ mol^-1]), and T is the absolute temperature [K] (Gamanov et al., 2022).

$k_p=k_0*e^{\frac{-Q}{RT}}.(3)$

5 Mechanical properties of ODS alloys including creep of ODS alloys and irradiation resistance

Oxide dispersion-strengthening of ferritic alloys is a way of allowing a significant increase in service temperature and irradiation tolerance by keeping advantages such as high thermal conductivity and low thermal expansion coefficient.

5.1 Fatigue properties

Research on low-cycle fatigue properties of ODS steels is rather limited. Ukai and Ohtsuka (2007) reported that the 9Cr–ODS and 12Cr–ODS steels have similar fatigue properties, and the 9Cr–ODS steel may show a superior fatigue life under the high-cycle conditions compared to conventional ferritic steels, such as Mod. 9Cr–1Mo steel. They also confirmed high fatigue strength and no cyclic softening, as also discussed by Marmy and Kruml (2008). This suggests no remarkable effects of the addition of other alloying elements on the fatigue life at elevated temperatures. This is in contrast with the studies by Kruml et al. (2011), Kubena et al. (2012), and Kubena and Kruml (2013), who investigated the low-cycle fatigue behavior at room and elevated temperatures of three different ODS steels, namely, Eurofer ODS (9Cr) steel and two 14Cr ODS ferritic steels (CEA and EPFL), which have different grain size distributions (uniform and bimodal) (Kubena and Kruml, 2013). These results show rather different fatigue behavior of individual ODS steels, and the authors discussed various strengthening mechanisms (Kubena and Kruml, 2013).

Later, the study on fatigue was concerned with Fe-based ODS nanocomposite of the chemical composition of Fe–14Cr–10Al–4Y₂O₃ consolidated by hot rotary swaging (Chlupová et al., 2021). After SR at 1,200 °C/4 h, the material swaged at 950 °C exhibited a coarse-grained microstructure, whereas that swaged at 1,050 °C exhibited a bi-modal grain microstructure. The coarse-grained microstructure significantly provides higher values of Young’s modulus, with a steeper temperature dependence than the bi-modal microstructure. The Young’s modulus of the coarse-grained microstructure variant is extraordinary high even at a temperature of 1,000 °C (200 GPa), which is caused by texture formation with prevailing orientation [111] along the rod axis. This work on the same system is followed by the study by Chlupová et al. (2020) regarding the cyclic strain response of the same system at 800 °C. The incremental fatigue step test (with a stepwise increase in the level of total strain amplitude from 0.1% to 0.6%, with blocks of 100 cycles at each loading level) led to the acquisition of the basic cyclic stress–strain curve (CSSC). Such a fatigue test serves as a basic check of the material performance. Subsequently, the study was extended by Šulák et al. (2024), who investigated the cyclic stress–strain response at 1,000 °C and 1,200 °C. The results obtained indicate a rather weak temperature dependence of the strength, which is common in ODS alloys in this temperature range. In regions of high plastic deformation, a fine-grained microstructure was identified in the most deformed regions near the crack tip, indicating partial dynamic recrystallization.

5.2 Creep

The high-temperature creep behavior of ODS alloys generally exhibits a threshold stress under which the creep rate becomes negligible, primary creep stage is significantly suppressed, and the ductility is very low (Gibeling and Nix, 1980; Lobb and Jones, 1980; Jaumier et al., 2019; Ren et al., 2022a). This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that nano-oxide dispersion effectively hinders the dislocation motion only from the beginning of the test and that cohesion strength of grain boundaries is the limiting factor. Such a conclusion can be drawn not only for FeAlOY nanocomposite but also for the commercial MA957 alloy (Malaplate et al., 2011) and the experimental ODS-310 alloy (Leo et al., 2019; Arzt and Rösler, 1988; Rösler and Arzt, 1990).

The minimum creep rate of the material depends on the stress and temperature. At given stress, the creep rate depends on the temperature according to Arrhenius rate equation given in Equation 4 (Čadek, 1988):

$\dot{\epsilon }=A{\sigma }^n\exp \left(-\frac{Q}{RT}\right),(4)$

where $\dot{\epsilon }$ is the minimum creep rate, A is a constant, Q is the apparent activation energy for the deformation process, R is the universal gas constant (8.314 Jmol⁻¹ K⁻¹), and T is the absolute temperature (Čadek, 1988). The stress exponent n serves as another crucial variable in the study of the creep behavior of ODS alloys. Because of the threshold stress, ODS alloys exhibit high stress sensitivity during creep, especially when the applied stress is close to the threshold stress. This also leads to high stress exponent of ODS alloys. The creep mechanisms nearly above the threshold stress were modeled by Rösler and Arzt, who proposed new constitutive equations for creep in ODS alloys (Arzt and Rösler, 1988; Rösler and Arzt, 1990).

Excellent creep resistance of the ODS alloys is due to nano-oxide dispersion, such as typical Y₂O₃ or Al–Y, Ti–Y, and Zr–Y mixed oxides, which are very stable at high temperatures (Ukai et al., 2020). Moreover, alloying by Al drastically improves oxidation and corrosion resistance. In reality, O is introduced into the ODS alloy not only by input Y₂O₃ powder but also by oxidized input powder surfaces. This excess O then leads to the formation of mixed oxides with other elements of a high affinity for O present in the matrix, which, however, could be less advantageous than Y₂O₃ (Jia et al., 2023). To avoid this effect, a sufficient amount of metallic Y can be added as the input for MA (Svoboda et al., 2022). The typical mean size of mixed Al–Y oxides in the MA956 alloy is 22 nm (Hirata et al., 2012), which could be significantly decreased by the addition of metallic Y to provoke the formation of more stable Y₂O₃. Studies by Yu et al. (2011), Dou et al. (2014), Gao et al. (2014), and Massey et al. (2020) have shown that Zr has a higher affinity to O than Al, and thus, Zr–Y nano-oxides (mainly Y₄Zr₃O₁₂) prefer the mixed Al–Y oxides. Some studies are also devoted to the addition of Hf to the ODS FeCrAl alloy, which provokes the precipitation of mixed Hf–Y oxides (Dong et al., 2017). Moreover, the study by Raghavendra et al. (2018) is devoted to ODS alloys strengthened by ZrO₂ instead of Y-based oxides.

The study by Massey et al. (2019) on the long-term creep in MA957 showed that the dispersed particles are quite stable. After creeping for 61,251 h at 825 °C and 70 MPa, the average size, number density, and composition of the particles were not affected. The samples only showed some pores after creep, which may be the main reason for the failure of the samples during subsequent experiments.

Creep resistance of the ODS alloys can be improved in two ways: i) modification of chemical composition (alloying by Al, Ti, Zr, Hf, and Cr) and ii) by processing.

i. Singh et al. (2023) investigated the creep behavior of an 18Cr ferritic ODS alloy containing 1 wt% Y₂O₃ in a temperature range of 500 °C–750 °C and a stress range of 150 MPa–425 MPa. The stress exponent values of 4–5 were obtained, which suggests dislocation climb to be the operative mechanism. During creep deformation, voids initially form at the grain boundaries near the triple junctions. With further deformation, these voids coalesce and form cracks. It must be stressed that the creep strength of the ODS alloys is, in this temperature region, 3–4 times lower than that of cheaper commercial superalloys, which disqualifies the possible applications of the ODS alloys under such conditions. Unfortunately, many other ODS studies (Svoboda et al., 2020a; 2023; Dymáček et al., 2022), providing similar results, are also devoted to the creep behavior in the similar temperature range. The studies of ODS alloys or nanocomposites devoted to temperatures over 1,000 °C are rather rare (Lowell et al., 1982; Türker, 1999; Svoboda et al., 2020a; Gamanov et al., 2022; Dymáček et al., 2024); however, such conditions only correspond to the real application potential of the ODS alloys. These studies clearly demonstrate the positive role of Al (Stratil et al., 2020) as an element that significantly contributes to oxidation resistance and the positive role of the coarse-grained microstructure on creep properties. Regarding ODS nanocomposites, the initial studies on the Fe–Al–O system (strengthened by pure Al₂O₃) (Dymáček et al., 2019b) were soon replaced by extensive research on FeAlOY with Cr additions, strengthened by Y₂O₃ or Al–Y mixed oxides. The exceptional creep properties of the FeAlOY were demonstrated by Dymáček et al. (2022) and Dymáček et al. (2024).

ii. The cryomilling process takes advantage of cryogenic temperatures and conventional MA (Dai et al., 2018). The oxides can be completely dissolved through mechanical alloying and trapping at drastically multiplied defects. Cryomilling significantly reduces the time of MA as the low temperature suppresses the annihilation of defects and enhances their accumulation. Cryomilling also minimizes oxidation reactions and inhibits recrystallization, resulting in smaller grain sizes and increased nanostructure formation kinetics (Kim et al., 2015). Cryomilling thus provides better conditions for MA of soft alloys as austenites and may avoid the use of milling agents (Mayer et al., 2022). Another way to improve creep resistance is via HRS consolidation (Svoboda et al., 2020a). The creep strength at 1,100 °C of ODS nanocomposites consolidated by HR or HRS exceeds that of the top commercial ODS alloy by more than 30% (see Figure 6).

Figure 6

Figure 6. Comparison of two batches of FeAlOY with Ni-based polycrystalline superalloy MAR–M247 and single crystal CMSX-4 creep (Dymáček et al., 2024).

5.3 Hardness

The hardness of ODS alloys can significantly depend on factors such as chemical composition, processing, and the type and morphology of nano-oxide dispersoids due to Orowan strengthening. In ferritic ODS alloys, the substantial components are Fe, Cr (Al in some systems), and Y₂O₃ (Singh et al., 2022). The trace elements such as W, Ti, Zr, and Hf could improve some mechanical properties of ODS alloys such as hardness, which is quite easy to test. Fine-grained ferritic 9Cr–1Mo-based ODS alloys have shown hardness values ranging from 275 HV to 290 HV after the final processing step, such as hot rolling or forging (Peng et al., 2021). The hardness of ODS Cu alloys is relatively low, with values 131–139 HV for different types of ODS–Cu alloys (Yang et al., 2023). The hardness of ODS-FeCrAl alloys was improved by the addition of Zr due to the increased volume fraction of fine equiaxed ferritic grains and number density of nanoparticles, along with the decreased average size of oxides (Gao et al., 2014).

The influence of the microstructure on hardness can be demonstrated for the coarse-grained nanocomposite FeAlOY with two different contents of Cr (Svoboda et al., 2020b). The microstructure can be significantly influenced by parameters of hot consolidation, which determine the conditions for SR and the final grain size. The results of HV5 hardness measurements are summarized in Figure 7, which also demonstrates the increase in hardness due to Cr alloying by approximately 40 HV. As all grain microstructures were rather coarse (approximately 1 mm), the contribution of the grain size, according to the Hall–Petch relation, is negligible, and the difference in the hardness can be attributed only to the dispersion morphology and alloying of the matrix.

Figure 7

Figure 7. Influence of the rolling temperature on hardness measurements (Svoboda et al., 2020b).

5.4 Irradiation resistance

ODS alloys possess not only excellent high-temperature creep and oxidation properties but also resistance to ion and neutron irradiation-induced swelling (Sagaradze et al., 2001). Moreover, ODS ferritic steels with the bcc lattice structure possess the ability to suppress void swelling better than the austenitic stainless steels with the fcc structure. For example, ODS alloy MA957, a 14Cr–ODS alloy, was irradiated in Joyo at the Japan Atomic Energy Agency (Toyama et al., 2024). Almost no change in the morphology of the oxide particles, such as average diameter, number density, and chemical composition, has been observed. The hardness of any of the irradiated samples remained almost unchanged compared to that of the unirradiated sample. It was revealed that the oxide particles existed stably, and the strength of the material was sufficiently maintained even after being neutron-irradiated to a high dose of approximately 160 dpa at a high temperature up to 700 °C.

However, one of the most common problems related to FeCrAl ODS alloys applied in high-temperature operation is embrittlement after prolonged exposure at temperatures near 475 °C. It is associated with the separation of the bcc matrix into iron-rich α and chromium-rich α′ phases (Capdevila et al., 2008). Alloys with a lower content of Cr present better resistance to 475 °C embrittlement. The chromium content between 10 and 12 wt. % seems optimal to have sufficient oxidation resistance while usually preventing harmful embrittlement (Dryepondt et al., 2018). Moreover, it appears that the aluminum content (>2 at. %) can suppress or limit α′ phase formation (Kobayashi and Takasugi, 2010). However, other research workers show that for alloys with a lower Cr content, Al can promote embrittlement (Han et al., 2016). ODS alloys present better 475 °C embrittlement resistance than alloys with the same composition without complex oxide precipitates.

Klimenkov et al. (2021) observed that the occurrence of radiation-induced defects depends significantly on the local number density and the size distribution of the oxide particles. Edmondson et al. (2013) pointed out that nanoparticle oxides could trap He atoms and thus promote the formation of ultrafine He bubbles, with a high density in a He-implanted 14YWT (Edmondson et al., 2013). He atoms, introduced via either direct He injection or neutron-induced transmutation reactions, agglomerate and form bubbles that can lead to void swelling and embrittlement. In ODS alloys, nano-oxides of a large surface area and a high-number density act as a preferential He trapping site and bubble nucleation site. Consequently, a large number density of very small He bubbles could be produced during service, thereby minimizing the detrimental effects of He agglomeration. Edmondson et al. (2013)) and Lu et al. (2014) found that the higher the density and the finer the nano-oxide particles, the better they suppress bubble formation in He-implanted 14Cr–ODS steels. Subsequently, Lu et al. (2016) showed a much better swelling resistance of the 9Cr ODS alloys than conventional FM ODS alloys due to the existence of high-density nano-sized oxides. Although Y₂Ti₂O₇ particles became unstable and dissolved gradually under elevated temperature and high-dose irradiation, fine Y–Ti–O nano clusters reprecipitated continuously in the matrix.

Ribis et al. (2021) showed that nano-oxides exhibit a significant coarsening resistance at temperatures below 1,100 °C, which are not sufficient to trigger the Ostwald ripening process. However, the irradiation influences coarsening of nano-oxides. Irradiation-induced defects increase the diffusivities of oxide-forming elements in the matrix, and nano-oxides begin to coarsen at significantly lower temperatures. Ostwald ripening can, however, also be inverted by irradiation, which may cause dissolution of large nano-oxides to the benefit of the smallest nano-oxides. In recent practical applications, the coarsening kinetics is low enough to sustain nano-oxides on a nano-metric scale. In any case, nano-oxides also exhibit another functionality as they appear to be the main sink that is able to remove vacancies and interstitials created during irradiation significantly.

Recently, significant results by Stasiak et al. (2025) revealed that adding V increases the strength of the FeCrAl ODS alloys. The addition of V also causes an increase in the strength of the alloy at temperatures up to 800 °C, whereas the ductility is somewhat similar to that of the vanadium-free material. The increase in strength is mainly the effect of a higher volume fraction of nanometric precipitates in the sample with V. The addition of V is also beneficial in preventing 475 °C embrittlement. Moreover, the addition of vanadium increases irradiation resistance. It is due to a higher volume fraction of precipitates, which act as sinks for defects mitigating irradiation-induced damage.

6 Feasibility of processing ODS nanocomposites

It is challenging to make ODS nanocomposites widely accessible by tuning their processing and manufacturing to achieve the homogeneous dispersion of nano-oxides in sufficient volume fraction. The challenging aspects include anisotropy in mechanical properties, difficulties in large-scale manufacturing, welding of large structures, and high production costs. Conventional casting techniques have failed to achieve uniform nano-oxide particle distribution. Therefore, there is no choice but to keep the classic procedures consisting of the following three steps, which can, of course, be significantly modified.

6.1 Classic production steps

i. MA is the essential method to achieve high-quality dispersion-significant fragmentation and homogenization or by their dissolution and reprecipitation of oxides (Gilman and Benjamin, 2003; Martin and Heilmaier, 2004; Rahmanifard et al., 2010; Neikov, 2019; El-Eskandarany, 2020; Suryanarayana, 2022; Nowik et al., 2023).

ii. Hot consolidation by a) rolling, extrusion, rotary swaging, and forging linked to a high degree of deformation, or b) HIP, SPS, and 3D printing linked to generally a low degree of deformation (Heintze et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2012; Naimi et al., 2020; Svoboda et al., 2023).

iii. Thermal or thermomechanical treatment can be successfully applied to ODS alloys consolidated by ii) a), which may provoke SR of the ultrafine-grained microstructure (Hoelzer, 2018; Murphy et al., 2025). In contrary, the ODS alloys consolidated by ii) b) usually exhibit a grain microstructure in its nearly final morphology and may involve a certain porosity.

Concerning step i), recently, Murphy et al. (2025) indicated sophisticated manufacturing of ODS alloys for nuclear applications, including advanced powder metallurgy methods such as high-energy milling. Cryomilling represents a form of MA conducted at cryogenic temperatures, which addresses the challenges linked to soft materials and austenites to prevent sticking on milling balls and achieve a better homogenization and higher stored energy (Verhiest et al., 2009; Mayer et al., 2022). Dai et al. (2019) showed that dispersion of the oxide phases during cryomilling occurred exclusively through physical mechanisms, which was different from that previously reported for room-temperature ball milling. The spatial distribution of the oxide dispersoids was found to be dependent on the evolution of internal surfaces during milling and on the type of oxide particles used. Thus, the strategy for ODS steels is to achieve homogeneous dispersion of nanometric oxides during cryomilling and prevent the oxide particles from coarsening at high temperature during sintering to activate the oxide dispersion-strengthening mechanism (Dai et al., 2019). Another significant innovative method of ODS alloys is their manufacturing by the introduction of Y₂Ti₂O₇ oxides instead of Y₂O₃ through MA by Simondon et al. (2021), providing a more homogeneous microstructure, less coarse precipitates, and more reliable impact properties than the conventional process. Although the finer nanostructure of mixed Y₂Ti₂O₇ oxides has been achieved by hot extrusion at 1,100 °C, there is no guarantee that such a nanostructure will sufficiently be coarsening-resistant during high-temperature long-term exposure. This is only the point that has not been clarified by Simondon et al. (2021). The coarsening kinetic of nano-oxide is determined using the standard Gibbs reaction energy of oxide formation, which is most advantageous for Y₂O₃. Thus, it cannot be expected that Y₂Ti₂O₇ would provide better results.

Concerning step ii), flash sintering (Weston et al., 2019) and microwave sintering (Manière et al., 2018) represent new promising methods of hot consolidation.

Concerning step iii), consolidation by the way ii) a) is applied at significantly lower temperatures than by ii) b), and the microstructure usually consists of much finer grains with very fine nano-oxide dispersion still containing a huge density of defects. Such an ODS alloy is hard and brittle and may contain sufficiently stored energy to drive SR, which takes place if the driving force overcomes the pinning of grain boundaries by nano-dispersion. To achieve a coarse-grained microstructure, the driving force cannot be too large so that only a small number of grains with the best conditions overcome the pinning effect and grow to large sizes (Svoboda et al., 2022). This scenario cannot appear in ODS alloys consolidated in the way ii) b).

6.2 3D printing of ODS alloys

To uniformly distribute the nanoscale oxide particles within the matrix, metal powder and oxide powder are typically pre-alloyed through mechanical alloying, followed by powder metallurgy processes such as SPS, HIP, or HE. As the alloy does not reach its melting point during the consolidation process, nano-oxides remain uniformly distributed within the alloy matrix, thus enhancing the mechanical properties. However, the high cost and complexity of such production process limit the industrial application of ODS alloys.

Recently, the powder-based 3D printing became a very popular topic of research because it allows producing parts of final shape without significant change in mechanical properties. This is, unfortunately, still not the case of 3D printing of ODS alloys. The main problem is that consolidation by 3D printing needs to melt the powder locally at least for a rather short time, which is, however, sufficient for a significant degradation of the nano-oxide dispersion by coalescence and coarsening. Nowadays, a number of different 3D printing modifications are being tested, and their parameters are being fine-tuned to minimize the abovementioned negative effects and achieve the best possible parameters for nano-oxide dispersion.

According to Goßling et al. (2024), laser ablation in liquid enables the size adjustment of precise nanoparticles. Dielectrophoretic deposition achieves the homogeneous, deformation-free coating of the binary Fe20Cr matrix powder with nanoparticles. Wilms et al. (2023a) demonstrated the feasibility of using the advanced directed energy deposition (DED) process of high-speed laser cladding (HSLC) for the production of the Fe-based ODS alloy PM2000. They can manufacture defect-free specimens with low porosity using HSLC. In recent years, with the development of additive manufacturing technology, many research workers have attempted to fabricate FeCrAl-ODS alloys using additive manufacturing methods, such as electron beam selective melting (EBSM) and selective laser melting (SLM) (Moya et al., 2007).

Very recently, there was limited research on the preparation of ODS alloy by SLM. As a result of a large difference in physical properties between oxide and metal, cracks and pores appear at the interface, resulting in the low degree of densification (Moya et al., 2007). Therefore, the current research mainly focused on the quality of SLM parts. Kenel et al. (2017) used different SLM process parameters to prepare the Y₂O₃ dispersion-strengthened γ-TiAl alloy. It was found that appropriate laser power and scanning strategy can effectively reduce the probability of workpiece cracking (Williams et al., 2013; Ghayoor et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2020; Doñate-Buendia et al., 2021).

Probably, the most well-known 3D printed alloy is a new ODS NiCoCr-based alloy using a model-driven alloy design approach and laser-based 3D printing, called GRX-810 (Smith et al., 2023). This Ni–Co–Cr-based alloy was developed using integrated computational material engineering (ICME) techniques focused on a new class of materials with exceptional temperature- and oxidation-resistant properties. The GRX-810 alloy utilizes additive manufacturing processes to incorporate nanoscale Y₂O₃ particles, deposited on the surfaces of the alloy powder, throughout its microstructure, resulting in remarkable enhancements. NASA successfully demonstrated the development and manufacturing of components made of the GRX-810 alloy through laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) and laser powder-directed energy deposition (LP-DED) processes. The GRX-810 alloy was specifically designed for aerospace applications, including liquid rocket engine injectors, preburners, turbines, and hot-section components, capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,100 °C (Gradl et al., 2024).

7 Summary

This review presents the paths of development of the ODS alloys including that to new Fe–Al–Cr-based ODS nanocomposites. The paper summarizes the recent activities in the field of ODS alloys regarding their processing, microstructure, and mechanical, corrosion, and oxidation properties. Coarse-grained ODS nanocomposites with a significantly higher content of nano-oxide dispersion up to 5 vol% represent the next step of development of ODS alloys, meeting new challenges and providing significantly improved high-temperature properties. The review can be summarized in the following items:

Conventional ODS alloys

• ODS alloys can be used up to 1,200 °C with very good creep resistance.

• The oxidation resistance of ODS alloys is drastically improved by a sufficient content of Al in the matrix, which is also enhanced by the Cr content. The presence of oxide dispersion reduces cation diffusion in the surface oxide layer, causing its slower growth mainly by O transport via grain boundaries. As the oxide layer on ODS alloys grows dominantly at the oxide/alloy interface, it exhibits improved adherence, enhanced selective oxidation, and decreased grain size compared to conventional alloys/steels.

• ODS alloys contain high number densities of oxides, the surface of which act as sinks for point defects and thus significantly increase the radiation resistance.

• The finely dispersed oxides act as obstacles to dislocation motion up to very high temperatures, making ODS alloys top materials for applications at temperatures over 1,000 °C. The excellent creep strength of the ODS alloys is associated with an attractive interaction between dislocations and oxides.

• Mechanical properties of ODS alloys are significantly dependent on the chemical composition and processing. This affords extensive variation in ODS alloys, facilitating their optimization across different application fields.

Coarse-grained ODS nanocomposites

• The coarse-grained ODS nanocomposites require to be hot-consolidated using a method linked to high deformation, resulting in an ultrafine-grained microstructure, with a high stored energy allowing a subsequent secondary recrystallization.

• The high content of nano-oxides in ODS nanocomposites ensures a nearly perfect strengthening of grains due to the attractive nano-oxide/dislocation interaction, which allows design of loaded parts with shape stability up to 1,300 °C.

• Coarse-grained microstructure of the ODS nanocomposites ensures suppression of the diffusive creep.

• The cohesive strength of grain boundaries limits the creep strength and causes a rather low ductility at temperatures over 1,000 °C.

• ODS nanocomposites have much better resistance to cyclic loading than conventional alloys and ODS alloys. The Young’s modulus of the coarse-grained microstructure variant is extraordinarily high (200 GPa) at a temperature of 1,000 °C in the case of texture with prevailing [111] orientation.

• The coarsening of the Y₂O₃ nanoparticles in the coarse-grained ODS nanocomposites occurs only very slowly even at 1,200 °C.

• The coarse-grained ODS nanocomposites exhibit a rather high threshold stress for creep, decreasing linearly with temperature at temperatures over 1,000 °C, under which the typical strain rate decreases below 10^–9 s^-1.

• Due to a high content of nano-oxides in ODS nanocomposites, one can expect that they exhibit significantly better irradiation resistance than conventional ODS alloys.

• The high density of nano-oxides results in a greatly reduced size of He bubbles in the ferrite matrix and lower amount of He bubbles at grain boundaries. Many manifestations of damaging irradiation effects, such as void swelling and He embrittlement, are expected to be greatly mitigated in coarse-grained ODS nanocomposites.

The existence of grain boundaries with limited cohesive strength causing a low creep ductility, and high processing costs seem to be the greatest drawback of the ODS alloys and nanocomposites. Both are substantial challenges for researchers, keeping the pathway open for continued investigation.

Author contributions

NL: Writing – original draft. DB: Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by the Czech Science Foundation in the frame of the Project 21-02203X.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Correction note

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the scientific content of the article.

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