Antonio Metastasio1,2*
Elisabeth Prevete3
Sofia Venturini4
Andrea Garofalo4Beatrice Cecconello4
Nicola De Pisapia4
Ornella Corazza1,4- 1Department of Clinical, Pharmacological and Biological Sciences, College Lane, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, United Kingdom
- 2Azienda USL Umbria 2, Terni, Italy
- 3Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell’Università, Rome, Italy
- 4Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy
Introduction: Considering the increasing evidence supporting psilocybin’s efficacy in therapeutic settings, it is essential to deepen our understanding of its subjective meanings and effects to enhance its integration into psychotherapy. Current knowledge is primarily based on psychometric assessments or unstructured personal reports, leaving a gap in the qualitative analysis of subjective psychedelic experiences and the resulting changes.
Objective: This study aimed to describe the subjective psychedelic experience with psilocybin in a structured, objective, and non-judgmental way (Epoche), while exploring its potential clinical applications.
Methods: A phenomenological qualitative approach, integrating interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) and the dynamic analysis (PHD) method, was used to analyze self-reported psilocybin experiences. Participants who met the inclusion criteria of being healthy adults and who had experienced psilocybin without any other substances were recruited through convenience sampling. Semi-structured interviews explored dimensions such as emotions, bodily sensations, perception of time and space, relationships, values, and enduring transformation. Data were analyzed using thematic coding.
Results: Ten interviews were carried out with voluntary participants. All the interviewees reported enhanced emotional and interpersonal sensitivity, increased empathy, a deeper connection to others, and a heightened ability to resolve personal issues as well as long-lasting insights into their lives and values. Participants also showed profound changes in behavior, attitudes, and interests, indicative of the potential for psilocybin to catalyze significant personal growth and development.
Conclusion: This study highlights the transformative potential of psilocybin experiences and their relevance to psychotherapeutic practices. By employing phenomenological methods, we offer a structured understanding of these states, which could be used in future to provide guidance for their integration into therapy by giving a better insight into psychedelic experience.
Introduction
Over the last two decades, there has been an increasing scientific attention on the potential therapeutic benefits of psilocybin to treat several mental disorders, including depression and anxiety, particularly among patients with life-threatening conditions (Goldberg et al., 2020), major depressive disorders (Carhart-Harris et al., 2018; Carhart-Harris et al., 2016; Davis et al., 2021), treatment-resistant depression (Johnson and Griffiths, 2017; Roseman et al., 2018), and nicotine and alcohol use disorders (Bogenschutz et al., 2015; Hendricks, 2014; Johnson et al., 2014; Johnson and Griffiths, 2017).
Increasing reports suggest that the therapeutic effects of psychedelics are not solely due to neurobiological mechanisms (Vollenweider and Smallridge, 2022). Instead, the subjective psychological effects of the psychedelic experience have been shown to play a fundamental role in recovering from mental illness (Miceli McMillan and Fernandez, 2023; Yaden and Griffiths, 2021). Particular attention is paid to the so-called mystical experiences, whereas the presence and intensity of such experiences promote recovery (Yaden and Griffiths, 2021) and are associated with improved well-being in healthy subjects (McCulloch D. E. W. et al., 2022) and improvements in positive attitudes toward life, death acceptance, spiritual significance, and meaningfulness (Griffiths et al., 2016). Furthermore, benefits such as positive psychological and social outcomes, also found in healthy volunteers, have been associated with these mystical-type and ego-dissolution experiences and may be long-lasting (Doblin, 1991; Griffiths et al., 2008; Griffiths et al., 2006; Pahnke, 1969). As for the safety data, psilocybin can moderately increase blood pressure and produce derealization symptoms and hallucinations that typically resolve within 6 h and become less frequent after repeated administration (Johnson et al., 2019), showing no severe adverse reactions in clinical settings.
Qualitative studies have revealed that while patients may approach psilocybin treatment with skepticism, those undergoing therapy can develop trust in therapists, and the care received can be profoundly impactful. Moreover, the ability to navigate and surrender to the intense experiences induced by psilocybin plays a critical role in the therapeutic process, and this ability varies widely among individuals. The existing studies highlighted psilocybin’s impact on emotional, psychological, perceptual, and relational experiences (Agin-Liebes et al., 2024; Belser et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2022). Psilocybin facilitates deep emotional processing across contexts, helping individuals confront painful memories, foster self-compassion, and improve emotional regulation (Agin-Liebes et al., 2024). Participants often report transformative shifts in identity, characterized by reduced self-critical thought patterns, enhanced interconnectedness, and revised life priorities (Belser et al., 2017). Evidence highlights that the psilocybin experiences are also marked by vivid visuals, profound states, heightened embodiment, and music-enhanced emotional ranges from distress to bliss, promoting personal growth and fostering stronger relationships (Smith et al., 2022).
In this context, understanding the full range of experiences, including potential adverse effects, is crucial in offering new insights into how patients process emotions, confront unresolved trauma, or achieve new perspectives on their mental health challenges. Such knowledge can enhance the therapeutic alliance by helping clinicians tailor integration strategies post-session and align treatments with individual patient needs. Hence, this study proposes a phenomenological analysis of the experience induced by psilocybin to better understand the nature of its subjective component and the underlying mechanisms through which the substance facilitates lasting psychological and behavioral changes in healthy individuals.
Methods
Participants
Participants were recruited through convenience sampling. To facilitate recruitment, an online advertisement was shared on social media for 6 months (March–September 2024), inviting individuals who reported a meaningful psilocybin experience to participate in the study. Those interested were asked to provide a brief written summary of their experience for an initial screening. Inclusion criteria included (a) being healthy; (b) an age of 18 years and older; (c) having had an experience with psilocybin (both in clinical and non-clinical settings); (d) no other psychedelic substances or a mixture of substances; (e) being fluent in English language; and (f) providing informed written consent to participate to the study. Subjects who could not attend the interview online or undertake the study procedures were excluded from the investigation. Out of 34 respondents, 10 individuals met the inclusion criteria and were invited to attend an online interview. Participants with multiple significant experiences induced by psilocybin were instructed to focus on a single experience for the study. No incentives were provided for participation.
Study procedures and data analysis
Interviews were always carried out in English since the subjects were either fluent in the language or native English speakers. The phenomenological unfolding, hermeneutic analysis, and dynamic analysis (PHD) method for psychotherapy introduced by Stanghellini (2019) was used to explore how participants described and made sense of their experience (Stanghellini, 2019). The PHD method integrates narrative inquiry and hermeneutic phenomenological analysis to achieve a comprehensive understanding of subjective experiences. These approaches, alongside interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), are well-established qualitative research methods, particularly valuable for investigating complex phenomena (Breeksema et al., 2024). This approach has been successfully applied in previous studies to investigate subjective experiences associated with substances such as synthetic cannabinoids (Corazza et al., 2020; Kassai et al., 2017) and psilocybin (Turton et al., 2014). Participants’ accounts were analyzed and compared across several pre-defined dimensions, including emotions; perceptions of body, time, and space; relationships with others; sense of self; values; and enduring impact or transformation, while adhering to the principle of Epoché (suspension of judgment). These categories were informed by evidence that emerged from previous research on meaningful experiences associated with psilocybin (Barrett et al., 2020; Griffiths et al., 2018; Jastrzebski and Bala, 2013; McCulloch D. E. et al., 2022; Smigielski et al., 2019; Wittmann et al., 2007). Subjects could describe the experience freely, allowing themes to emerge naturally alongside those identified a priori. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed. The study was approved by the University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering and Technology Ethics Committee (Approval Number: LMS/PGR/UH/04113).
Results
Sample
The sample included 10 participants from both clinical and non-clinical settings [mean age 32.3 years (range 25–36 years)], F = 2, who mostly reported their experience in different contexts, retrospectively. For more details, see Table 1.
Table 1. Lived experiences with psilocybin.
Lived experiences of psilocybin
All details related to the lived experiences following psilocybin use were analyzed considering the main phenomenological dimensions including emotions, body, time, space, others, self, values, and enduring transformation and impact according to the PHD method. The results have been summarized in Table 1.
Overarching insights across psilocybin experiences
Context
The contexts in which psilocybin was consumed varied widely among participants, reflecting a spectrum of environmental and social settings. These included controlled clinical environments, structured legal retreats, and recreational use in natural settings such as parks or mountains and private, domestic spaces like homes. Experiences spanned solitary journeys and group settings with friends or family, providing insights into the personal and shared aspects of these experiences.
Emotions
A wide range of emotional experiences were consistently described across all participants, beginning with apprehension, fear, or anxiety, which often transitioned into euphoria, awe, and profound happiness. As one participant described, “I was apprehensive at first and very excited to take part” (participant 1). While the emotional spectrum varied, the transformative arc of emotions was common, culminating in positive states like peace, joy, and empathy, with one participant reporting feeling “empathetic and naked” (participant 6). Emotional intensity was universal, with laughter, tears, and catharsis frequently noted, with one participant reporting that “the emotions were very strong and led to important physical reactions like laughter and tears” (participant 10) or another one describing that “the emotions were very intense, feeling unmediated and primordial” (participant 9). However, some participants found emotions overwhelming, while others experienced tranquility and emotional integration.
Lived body
A strong interplay between physical sensations and psychological states emerged. Many participants reported heightened bodily awareness, often described as energy flows, tingling sensations, or the perception of disintegration and merging with the environment. One participant reported “a disembodied experience similar to out-of-the-body experiences” (participant 1), while another subject described “a profound sense of my body disintegrating, as the usual boundaries delineating the self from the environment shifted and blurred” (participant 5). On the other hand, others noted fluctuations in body temperature, physical comfort, or the ability to localize pain and embody emotions. A recurring theme was a newfound connection to the body as a vessel for the psychedelic journey. For instance, one participant reported: “I could sense my body more deeply, some kind of energy was running through my spine” (participant 6), or another subject describing ““I had a sense of physical well-being…I got the impression that the substance has something to teach me … through sensations” (participant 9).
Lived time
Time perception was consistently altered and appears to be a central feature of psilocybin experiences. A majority of the participants described a distortion or complete loss of temporal awareness of time. They claimed that “Time was not relevant” (participant 1) or “Time did not matter” (participants 2 and 3).
Time often felt compressed, expanded, or irrelevant, creating a profound “here-and-now” sensation. Another participant described, “I spent five hours in continuous becoming. I felt time was going fast, and many events were happening together, although it went fast, I enjoyed every single moment” (participant 2). However, some participants experienced fluidity, with events unfolding rapidly, while others felt time slowed or became suspended, as noted by one participant, “living that experience felt like a lot of time, more than any other moment” (participant 8).
Lived space
Similarly, space perception was consistently altered. Participants described vivid and intensified colors, pareidolic illusions, and spaces appearing “alive” or “breathing.” Specifically, one subject remarked, “I perceived the tree as being alive… everything was seen in a different way, with colors more intense and enhanced” (participant 3). Nature played a significant role, often described as vibrant, interconnected, and conscious. For instance, a participant claimed that “space became more alive; the world was inhabited by consciousness and unknown forces” (participant 6). For some, space became continuous and immersive, as captured in the description, “land and sky were fused together” (participant 2). However, others noted distortions and an ability to reshape or interact with their surroundings, highlighting the dynamic and malleable nature of spatial perception during the experience.
Otherness
Social interactions and perceptions of others were also profoundly affected. Participants often experienced heightened empathy, deep emotional bonds, and alternative means of communication, such as telepathic-like exchanges. As one participant shared, “I could see the others better; there were few phrases but loaded with emotions. I felt that language was unnecessary to communicate with others” (participant 2). However, the degree of interpersonal focus varied, whereas some participants emphasized solitude or introspection, while others highlighted shared emotional experiences, with one remarking, “we remained in synchrony throughout the experience” (participant 9).
Selfness
On the other hand, the perception of the self underwent significant transformations, often involving a shift from pre-reflexive to reflexive states. Participants frequently described ego dissolution, spiritual awakenings, and profound realizations about their place in the universe. As one participant described, “I experienced a deep acceptance of the surrounding reality and of myself, as if I had made peace with my inner demons” (participant 9). This was often accompanied by a deep acceptance of oneself and an expanded sense of identity, moving from self-referentiality to openness and interconnectedness, as reflected in the account, “it was a deep spiritual experience. I know now that there is a greater force that runs the universe. If we let ourselves go with the flow, everything goes well” (participant 2).
Values
Psilocybin experiences often led participants to either reevaluate or reaffirm their core values. Many described gaining a deeper sense of empathy, a stronger connection to nature, and a move away from materialistic or superficial concerns. As one participant noted, “I became less materialistic. I also learned the values of others” (participant 2). For some, these experiences reinforced values they already held, such as a focus on relationships, spirituality, or living authentically, as reflected in the remark, “I developed more empathy, awareness in communication, and more respect toward others” (participant 6). For others, the shifts were more profound, challenging their previous ways of thinking and sparking significant personal change. One participant reported a shift toward a vegan lifestyle (participant 1). Moreover, participants often spoke about these moments as deeply meaningful, sometimes even life-defining, and they frequently emphasized the importance of integrating these insights into their daily lives. These experiences were described as both challenging and rewarding, offering clarity and a renewed sense of purpose.
Enduring impact
The enduring impact of psilocybin experiences was generally positive, with participants reporting lasting changes in self-awareness, creativity, relationships, and worldview, with one subject reporting “I have a deeper understanding about myself, and I feel more open as a person and as an actor” (participant 2). Common themes included increased mindfulness, greater tolerance and patience, and an improved ability to handle life’s challenges. As one participant noted, “I became more understanding, I widened the confines of my interior self, and I opened up to new genres of music. I also developed more patience and more availability to listen to others” (participant 6). Additionally, for some, the experience marked a profound spiritual or philosophical turning point, while others noted a subtler, yet meaningful, personal growth. This is highlighted by the reflection, “before this experience, I did not fully understand myself or what could be felt and perceived. I realized that the people around me loved me, and I became much more tolerant with people” (participant 7).
Discussion and conclusion
Our phenomenological analysis shows that psilocybin induces profound shifts in perception, emotional processing, and self-awareness, holding significant implications for psychotherapy and the broader understanding of psychedelic-induced states. In general, participants reported a greater capacity to accept their emotions. These effects are supported by neuroimaging studies, demonstrating that psilocybin reduces amygdala reactivity to negative stimuli and that this attenuation relates to an increase of positive mood in healthy participants (Kraehenmann et al., 2015; Preller and Vollenweider, 2018). Interpersonal sensitivity, empathy, and connection to others were also enhanced, and participants seemed to gain insights into their lives and the ability to resolve personal issues often becoming more open and being able to face them from different perspectives. This aligns with previous research by MacLean et al. (2011), who showed that openness remained significantly elevated for 1 year after the psilocybin session in participants who had a mystical experience (MacLean et al., 2011). Similarly, subjects seemed to gain insights into their values, and the nature of reality, which is also in line with previous research showing that psilocybin induces subjective positive changes in attitude and personality (Studerus et al., 2012). These findings are in tune with similar research and confirm the effect that psilocybin has in healthy individuals.
Moreover, the dissolution of ego boundaries was often highlighted, aligning with the concept of “ego death” reported in psychedelic literature (Stoliker et al., 2022). This experience can be therapeutic, allowing individuals to transcend their self-centered perspective, reduce ego-driven behaviors, and develop a more integrated sense of self. These experiences also led to long-lasting changes in behavior, attitudes, and interests, enhancing emotional awareness even after the effects of the substance vanished, and highlighting the potential of psilocybin to catalyze personal growth and development. The ability of psilocybin to induce these profound experiences supports its use for therapeutic applications. By facilitating a temporary loosening of the ego, psilocybin can enable individuals to confront and reprocess traumatic memories or entrenched negative beliefs from a new perspective (Letheby and Gerrans, 2017; Mason et al., 2020), which was also noted in this study. One of the participants described suffering but in a relaxed manner, which highlights the potential psilocybin holds to promote positive emotional responses. This enhanced emotional sensitivity and empathy may improve social connectedness and resolve, key factors in many mental health issues, including depression and anxiety (Morrison et al., 2019; Taylor et al., 2020). Moreover, the insights gained during these experiences can provide individuals with new meanings and directions in life, potentially alleviating existential anxieties and providing motivation for personal change. While some participants reported a range of negative experiences, no significant adverse reactions were reported, as these negative effects were generally short-lived and resolved as the experience unfolded. Negative experiences included transient fear, anxiety, and apprehension at the onset, physical discomfort, such as changes in body temperature or nausea, disorientation in time and space, and feelings of emotional vulnerability. Moreover, as previously suggested, no serious adverse effect was reported due to limited sample size. However, we assessed a heterogeneous group, comprising both men and women and experiences from recreational and clinical use, which suggests the need to replicate such a study in a bigger sample for a better understanding of the generalizability of these results.
This study, while explorative and preliminary, demonstrates the significant benefits of employing a PHD phenomenological analysis of psilocybin experiences. Firstly, it provides novel insights into the subjective nature of consciousness alteration, enhancing our understanding of this complex phenomenon. Secondly, it identifies therapeutic elements inherent in psychedelic experiences, offering valuable guidance for integrating these elements into psychotherapeutic practices. Unlike previous studies that utilized a phenomenological approach but lacked methodologically guided qualitative data collection (Horvath, 2018; Houot, 2021; Miceli McMillan and Fernandez, 2023; Szabo et al., 2014; Szummer et al., 2017), this research addresses this gap by using semi-structured interviews and structured assessments. Additionally, it underscores the importance of a supportive and safe environment during psychedelic sessions, highlighting the critical role of set and setting in shaping the experience.
This research advocates for expanding the phenomenological assessment to include different psychedelic substances and non-ordinary states not induced by psychedelics. Through the exploration of categorically defined experiences, it offers a deeper understanding of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) under the influence of psilocybin and the enduring changes associated with it. Overall, these findings hold practical implications for clinical settings, as they can support clinicians in gaining a more comprehensive understanding of their patients and establishing stronger therapeutic relationships, while addressing the complexities of human psychology with greater precision and care.
Limitations
This article is exploratory in nature, and we are therefore aware that the analysis does not fully meet the standards of high-quality phenomenological research (Nizza et al., 2021). We are, however, living the dawn of phenomenology applied to psychedelic research; therefore we need, in this phase, a pragmatic approach to collect as many cases as possible to build a database and to learn so that future qualitative research will fulfill high-quality standards. The main limitation of this study is that participants were asked to recall an experience that may have occurred years prior to the interview, possibly challenging the accuracy and reliability of their memory. Additionally, the study lacks a detailed assessment of adverse effects and precise dosage reporting, which further limits the robustness of the findings. This omission makes it difficult to draw a clear picture of psilocybin’s effects, given that the strength and nature of its impact are closely correlated with dosage. Variation in doses, or the lack of precise dosage data, may have significantly influenced the clinical and psychological outcomes reported by participants. The authors acknowledge that while small-scale studies provide valuable preliminary data, the findings are based on a limited sample size and may not be generalizable to a larger, more diverse population, thereby limiting the external validity of our findings.
Data availability statement
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.
Ethics statement
The studies involving humans were approved by University of Hertfordshire Health, Science, Engineering and Technology Ethics Committee (Approval no. LMS/PGR/UH/04113). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.
Author contributions
AM: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EP: Writing – review & editing. SV: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. AG: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft. BC: Investigation, Writing – original draft. NP: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Writing – review & editing. OC: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Funding
The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research and/or publication of this article.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the individuals who shared their experience with us.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.
Publisher’s note
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Keywords: phenomenology, psychedelics, psychopathology, psylocibin, lived experiences, qualitative approach
Citation: Metastasio A, Prevete E, Venturini S, Garofalo A, Cecconello B, De Pisapia N and Corazza O (2025) The phenomenology of psilocybin: transformative insights for research and clinical practice. Front. Psychol. 16:1455902. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1455902
Edited by:
Vittorio Lenzo, University of Catania, ItalyReviewed by:
Caterina Bartoli, SIMEPSI ETS, ItalyElisa Liberati, University College London, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2025 Metastasio, Prevete, Venturini, Garofalo, Cecconello, De Pisapia and Corazza. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Antonio Metastasio, YW50b25pby5tZXRhc3Rhc2lvQGdtYWlsLmNvbQ==