Annamaria Di Fabio
Mirko Duradoni- 1Department of Education, Languages, Interculture, Letters and Psychology (Psychology Section), University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- 2Department of Information Engineering, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
This article discusses the role of several constructs, such as workplace relational civility (WRC), positive relational management (PRM), and emotional intelligence (EI), as possible primary preventive resources to effectively deal with interpersonal mistreatment in the workplace (i.e., incivility). Since women endure workplace incivility more frequently than men, their well-being is particularly at risk. Thus, the possibilities for further research and primary prevention interventions in line with the achievement of the fifth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 5) are discussed.
Introduction
Uncivil behaviors are becoming more frequent in our post-modern society. In a 2002 survey of 2,000 American respondents, roughly four out of five considered disrespect, a lack of consideration, and rudeness serious issues, and three out of five believed that the situation was getting worse (Farkas and Johnson, 2002). The workplace is no exception. Due to globalization, rapid economic changes, and technological advancements, workers’ experience of the 21st century labor market could be stressful (Blustein et al., 2018), since coping with continuous change is often very demanding (Wanberg and Banas, 2000). This new work environment, characterized by the great number, complexity, and fragmentation of workplace relationships, may increase incivility (Pearson et al., 2000). Moreover, a work and information overload can lead to an increased perception of time pressures and thus induce workers to be less polite in their interpersonal behavior (Pearson et al., 2000; Pearson and Porath, 2005). Between 10 and 20% of workers reported witnessing incivility daily, while 20–50% affirmed that they had been the direct target of mistreatment in their workplace (Griffin and O’Leary-Kelly, 2004; Pearson and Porath, 2005). Notably, women endure workplace incivility more frequently than men (Cortina et al., 2001). In order to achieve gender equity, as defined by the fifth Sustainable Development Goal (United Nations, 2018) and promote well-being among women in the workplace, new theoretical and intervention approaches, such as intervention in the primary prevention framework (Hage et al., 2007; Kenny and Hage, 2009; Di Fabio 2017a), should be considered. This would help to confront incivility and create more civil workplace environments, from which all employees would likely benefit. The article discusses several constructs related to the primary prevention approach, based on advanced relational competencies, which would like to reduce the frequency of incivility (i.e., reducing risk), also as a mean to face gender inequality (Kalev and Deutsch, 2018) and shape healthier relational cultures (building strengths) advantageous for both women and men (Saxena et al., 2019).
Consequences of Incivility
Workplace incivility is defined as low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target (Andersson and Pearson, 1999). Uncivil behaviors are stressors that can lead to negative health consequences (e.g., depression, physical symptoms; Jex et al., 1992; Spector and Jex, 1998). On a psychological level, experiencing interpersonal mistreatment could harm one’s self-image (i.e., offense to self; Cornish-Bowden, 2004). Experiencing incivility can decrease an individual’s self-esteem (Frone, 2000), self-efficacy (Mikkelsen and Einarsen, 2002), self-confidence (Vartia, 2001), and well-being (Lapierre et al., 2005). Empirical evidence suggests that incivility is negatively associated with job satisfaction, psychological well-being, and life satisfaction. Moreover, its occurrence is connected with higher levels of job stress, job withdrawal, and psychological distress (Lim and Cortina, 2005). Interestingly, for women, the negative relationship between incivility and overall job satisfaction is stronger than the relationship between sexual aggression and overall job satisfaction (Lapierre et al., 2005). Thus, the occurrence of workplace incivility could be sufficient to determine a decrease in women’s occupational, psychological, and physical health (Lapierre et al., 2005; Lim and Cortina, 2005).
From Workplace Incivility to Workplace Relational Civility
The contemporary prevention approach (Hage et al., 2007; Kenny and Hage, 2009) is focused on both reducing risks and building strengths among individuals (e.g., promoting individual resources; Di Fabio and Saklofske, 2014) and within organizations (Tetrick and Peiró, 2012; Di Fabio, 2017b). Traditionally, the work and organizational literature has focused on workplace incivility rather than civility in the workplace (Andersson and Pearson, 1999; Cortina et al., 2001; Pearson et al., 2001; Schilpzand et al., 2016). Nevertheless, to establish the optimal conditions for developing adaptive relationships among co-workers and thus promote well-being in the workplace, civility is mandatory (Blustein, 2011). Civility implies respect, courtesy, and awareness of the rights of others (Carter, 1998; Maree, 2012), and it is intrinsically relational (Di Fabio and Gori, 2016).
Workplace relational civility (WRC) has been defined as a relational style characterized by respect and concern for both the self and others, interpersonal sensitivity, personal education, and kindness toward others (Di Fabio and Gori, 2016), and it is described by three dimensions: (1) relational decency, (2) relational culture, and (3) relational readiness. Relational decency implies the ability to understand the relational dynamics of a given situation and constructively contribute to the relationships within the workplace. Relational culture refers to the culture’s influence in shaping kind and polite relationships among people. Relational readiness concerns the ability to quickly understand others’ feelings and show proactive sensibility. The relationships between WRC and the outcomes of workplace incivility have been empirically tested (Di Fabio et al., 2016; Di Fabio and Gori, 2016). The WRC was showed to be associated with higher levels of self-esteem and perceived social support. Perceived social support refers to the degree with which family, friends, and significant others are experienced as supportive and available. The association with perceived social support is particularly interesting for secondary (i.e., when the first symptoms are emerging) and tertiary prevention interventions (i.e., reducing the impact of an already-established problem; Caplan, 1964), since social support can buffer the detrimental effects of an unsafe workplace climate (van Emmerik et al., 2007). WRC is also related to both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (Di Fabio et al., 2016; Di Fabio and Gori, 2016). Hedonic well-being consists of a cognitive evaluation component (i.e., satisfaction with life; Diener et al., 1985) and an affective evaluation component (i.e., the prevalence of positive emotions over negative emotions; Watson et al., 1988). By contrast, eudaimonic well-being is described as an individual’s optimal functioning and self-realization (i.e., meaning in life; Vázquez et al., 2006; Ryff and Singer, 2008).
Positive Relational Management
Relationships are fundamental for people’s well-being (Rigby, 2000; Gallagher and Vella-Brodrick, 2008; Suldo et al., 2009; Ferguson and Goodwin, 2010) and within organizations (Tetrick and Peiró, 2012). The ability to dialectically integrate work and relationships, strengthening the aspects of the self in a relational environment, is a central aspect of the Positive Self and Relational Management model (Di Fabio and Kenny, 2016). Positive relational management (PRM) refers to an individual’s resources that are useful for relational adaptation within the workplace and beyond, and it is described by three dimensions (Di Fabio, 2016), namely, (1) respect (i.e., my respect for others, the respect of others for me, and my respect for myself), (2) caring (i.e., my care for others, the care of others for me, and my care for myself), and (3) connectedness (i.e., my connectedness with family members, friends, significant others, and reciprocity). PRM is associated with perceived social support (Pearson’s r ranging between 0.41 and 0.46; (Di Fabio, 2016). Thus, PRM resources appear useful for building positive and supportive relationships within the workplace. PRM also showed a strong connection with hedonic well-being (Pearson’s r ranging between 0.49 and 0.52; Di Fabio, 2016). Those who were more able in PRM also experienced higher satisfaction with their own life. Finally, PRM was empirically studied in reference to aspects of eudaimonic well-being (Di Fabio, 2016). The PRM scores were positively correlated with individuals perceiving their life as meaningful (Pearson’s r ranging between 0.39 and 0.57) and flourishing (Pearson’s r ranging between 0.41 and 0.68; Di Fabio, 2016; Di Fabio and Kenny, 2019). “Flourishing” encompasses purpose in life, positive relationships, engagement, competence, self-esteem, optimism, and contribution toward the well-being of others (Diener et al., 2010; Seligman, 2012; Huppert and So, 2013). Thus, PRM resources could not only increase well-being on an individual level but also potentially contribute to general workplace well-being.
Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence Competencies
Emotional intelligence (EI) has been defined as the ability to discriminate and express emotions, assimilate emotions in thoughts, and regulate emotions in the self and others (Mayer et al., 2000b). EI is described by three categories of abilities: (1) appraisal and expression of emotions, (2) regulation of emotions, and (3) using emotions for solving problems (Salovey and Mayer, 1990). Although the literature agrees on the definition of EI, several different models have been proposed (Boyatzis, 2009; Cherniss, 2010). Historically, a first distinction has been made between ability-based EI, which refers strictly to the cognitive abilities required in the processing and use of emotional information, and mixed models which instead incorporate a wide range of personality variables (Petrides and Furnham, 2000; Mayer et al., 2000a). Subsequently, several scholars (Saklofske et al., 2003; Ashkanasy and Daus, 2005; Stough et al., 2009) have distinguished two principal EI models: ability-based models (Mayer et al., 2000a) and trait EI models, which encompass self-reported EI (Bar-On, 2004) and trait emotional self-efficacy measures (Petrides and Furnham, 2000, 2001, 2003). Another possible distinction around EI has emerged (Cherniss, 2010). Models that refer to the basic abilities of emotion recognition, reasoning, and regulation are categorized as EI models (Mayer et al., 2000a), whereas models that imply personal qualities that contribute to positive work-related performance (Boyatzis et al., 2000; Petrides and Furnham, 2000; Mayer et al., 2000a) are considered models of emotional intelligence competencies (EIC). Recently a holistic view of EI, which include multiple levels, has been proposed (Boyatzis, 2018). According to the multi-level theory framework, EI is articulated on three levels: basic ability/trait, self-perceived level, and behavioral level.
Despite the fragmented framework around EI and EIC, the empirical evidence and implication of these constructs on well-being appear to be clear. The higher scores on the self-reported measures of EI (i.e., EQ-i, Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire) were associated with greater resilience and a greater sense of life satisfaction (Di Fabio and Saklofske, 2014). This result suggested that intervene on people’s perceptions of their emotional abilities can contribute potentially to their hedonic well-being. On the basis of this study, eudaimonic well-being has also been addressed in terms of its relationship with EI (Di Fabio and Kenny, 2019.). The trait EI scores appeared to be strongly related to the individual’s perception of a meaningful life (Di Fabio and Kenny, 2019) and flourishing (Di Fabio and Kenny, 2019). By contrast, ability-based EI appeared to poorly contribute to both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being (Bhullar et al., 2013). Nevertheless, ability-based EI (Mayer Salovey Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2002) is associated with an increased perceived social support. In other words, people who reported a greater ability in perceiving, understanding, and managing emotions and using them to facilitate thought also perceived more social support (Di Fabio, 2015).
In terms of contributing to problem-solving, social responsibility, and impulse control, EI is showed to be connected to how people manage conflict in the workplace (Hopkins and Yonker, 2015). A recent study explored the connection between a wide pool of EI instruments (i.e., MSCEIT, EQ-i, Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire) and individuals’ resilience and hedonic well-being (i.e., satisfaction with life; Di Fabio and Saklofske, 2014).
Conclusion
Incivility is a serious threat to people’s well-being (Lapierre et al., 2005; Lim and Cortina, 2005). Women are particularly vulnerable to the detrimental effects of workplace aggression, since they experience it more frequently (Cortina et al., 2001). Thus, promoting well-being in the workplace and preventing certain unsafe dynamics from establishing themselves could be considered a promising strategy to reach gender equity (United Nations, 2018) as well as to advance women’s careers within organizations (Hopkins and Bilimoria, 2008; O’Neil et al., 2008).
Identical working conditions can generate a gap between women and men in terms of well-being and job opportunities since unhealthy relational work environments particularly penalize women. For instance, women are more likely to experience psychological distress due to incivility (Abubakar, 2018) and this could hinder an equal career development across gender (e.g., women have a higher risk for long-term sickness absence than men; Lidwall and Marklund, 2006). Moreover, incivility could be used as a way to demonstrate power and thus prescribe the “appropriate” gender behavior among non-conforming women and men, which usually underpins gender inequality (Kalev and Deutsch, 2018).
The primary prevention approach (Kenny and Hage, 2009; Di Fabio, 2017a) and the psychology of sustainability and sustainable development (Di Fabio, 2017b; Di Fabio and Rosen, 2018) focus on constructs that are potentially affected by interventions. In this sense, WRC, PRM, EI, and EIC, as with every resource that is conceived as trainable interpersonal and emotional abilities and skills, are worth taking into consideration (Slaski and Cartwright, 2003; Leiter et al., 2011; Cherry et al., 2012). All the aforementioned constructs appeared to be related to social support, indicating that being able to build positive and supportive relationships in the workplace could hinder the occurrence of interpersonal mistreatment. Social support could be also able to buffer the detrimental outcomes related to incivility (Schilpzand et al., 2016) and stress in general (Väänänen et al., 2003; González-Morales et al., 2006; Peiró, 2008). Indeed, social support from supervisors and co-workers appeared to favor people’s job satisfaction (Acker, 2004). Nevertheless, social support did not automatically imply advanced relational competencies, which may contribute to shape and support a preventive, advanced, and competent relational culture of an organization. Promoting relational awareness, strengths, and resources in a primary prevention perspective could play a crucial role in avoiding the establishment of dangerous relational dynamics. Interestingly, EIC could influence the way people manage conflict in the workplace (Hopkins and Yonker, 2015) and thus prevent the emergence of unsafe interpersonal conditions. PRM also could enhance individuals’ relational strengths and improve workers’ quality of life. Overall, building early and preventively people’s advanced awareness and relational competencies can contribute to shaping an adaptive relational culture within organizations, which is important for fostering women’s meaning of work (Grossman and Chester, 1989; Thory, 2016) and wellbeing (Zurbrügg and Miner, 2016). Interestingly, acting on these constructs may be relevant for women since women are more likely to be victimized, but may benefit all the workers. Indeed, a healthy relational environment affects all workers (Nielsen et al., 2017).
In general, both hedonic and eudaimonic well-being appear to be affected by WRC, PRM, EI, and EIC. However, some conflicting evidence has emerged from the literature analysis in relation to ability-based EI and hedonic well-being (Bhullar et al., 2013; Di Fabio and Saklofske, 2014). Overall, the contribution of ability-based EI to individuals’ satisfaction with life appeared modest, if not absent. Instead, the evidence regarding the relationship between WRC, PRM, EIC, and well-being seems more robust (Di Fabio and Saklofske, 2014; Di Fabio, 2016; Di Fabio et al., 2016; Di Fabio and Gori, 2016). Nevertheless, WRC and PRM are very novel constructs (Di Fabio, 2016; Di Fabio and Gori, 2016). Thus, further research should look to assess how they change over time by means of longitudinal studies. Moreover, the degree of WRC and PRM interventions’ effectiveness regarding well-being and workplace incivility should be assessed to offer evidence of causality and indication about the optimal and most efficient intervention duration. Cultural and ethnic background effects should be assessed as well. The Psychology of Harmony and Harmonization (Di Fabio and Tsuda, 2018) highlighted that the value of balancing process related to individuals’ relationality aspects (inner relationality, relationality with others, relationality with contexts in a temporal and geographical perspective) might be similar across cultures. However, the optimal level of balance between those aspects could be different between cultures (Sharma, 2012). In such sense, more research should be carried on to define which aspects encompassed by the primary prevention constructs presented in this study are more suitable for intervention in different regions of the world.
Future research has to take in consideration also other contextual and temporal aspects of this perspective, as, for example, type of organization and setting, gender and age mix of people, and how long must these relational competencies be practiced in the organization to see any type of measurable result.
Finally, in terms of limitations, since the literature showed improvement mainly on the experience of individuals, group level measures are needed to investigate on multiple levels (e.g., group, organization) the outcomes of primary prevention interventions based on the enhancement of relational competencies.
In conclusion, it seems that the primary prevention approach (Hage et al., 2007; Kenny and Hage, 2009; Di Fabio, 2017a) could effectively contribute to gender equity by promoting well-being in an environment in which the recent changes due to globalization and technological advancements (Savickas, 2011; Blustein et al., 2018) are making incivility more frequent (Farkas and Johnson, 2002), especially toward women (Cortina et al., 2001).
Data Availability
No datasets were generated or analyzed for this study.
Author Contributions
AD and MD ideated the structure, analyzed the literature, and wrote the manuscript.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
References
Abubakar, A. M. (2018). Linking work-family interference, workplace incivility, gender and psychological distress. J. Manag. Dev. 37, 226–242. doi: 10.1108/JMD-06-2017-0207
Acker, G. M. (2004). The effect of organizational conditions (role conflict, role ambiguity, opportunities for professional development, and social support) on job satisfaction and intention to leave among social workers in mental health care. Community Ment. Health J. 40, 65–73. doi: 10.1023/B:COMH.0000015218.12111.26
Andersson, L. M., and Pearson, C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Acad. Manag. Rev. 24, 452–471. doi: 10.5465/amr.1999.2202131
Ashkanasy, N. M., and Daus, C. S. (2005). Rumors of the death of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior are vastly exaggerated. J. Organ. Behav. 26, 441–452. doi: 10.1002/job.320
Bar-On, R. (2004). “The bar-on emotional quotient inventory (EQ-i): rationale, description and summary of psychometric properties” in Measuring emotional intelligence: Common ground and controversy. ed. G. Geher (Hauppauge, NY, US: Nova Science Publishers), 115–145.
Bhullar, N., Schutte, N. S., and Malouff, J. M. (2013). The nature of well-being: the roles of hedonic and eudaimonic processes and trait emotional intelligence. J. Psychol. 147, 1–16. doi: 10.1080/00223980.2012.667016
Blustein, D. L. (2011). A relational theory of working. J. Vocat. Behav. 79, 1–17. doi: 10.1016/j.jvb.2010.10.004
Blustein, D. L., Kenny, M. E., Di Fabio, A., and Guichard, J. (2018). Expanding the impact of the psychology of working: engaging psychology in the struggle for decent work and human rights. J. Career Assess. 27, 3–28. doi: 10.1177/1069072718774002
Boyatzis, R. E. (2009). Competencies as a behavioral approach to emotional intelligence. J. Manag. Dev. 28, 749–770. doi: 10.1108/02621710910987647
Boyatzis, R. E. (2018). The behavioral level of emotional intelligence and its measurement. Front. Psychol. 9:1438. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01438
Boyatzis, R. E., Goleman, D., and Rhee, K. S. (2000). “Clustering competence in emotional intelligence: insights from the emotional competence inventory” in The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace. ed. J. D. A. Parker (San Francisco, CA, US: Jossey-Bass), 343–362.
Cherniss, C. (2010). Emotional intelligence: toward clarification of a concept. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 3, 110–126. doi: 10.1111/j.1754-9434.2010.01231.x
Cherry, M. G., Fletcher, I., O’sullivan, H., and Shaw, N. (2012). What impact do structured educational sessions to increase emotional intelligence have on medical students? BEME guide no. 17. Med. Teach. 34, 11–19. doi: 10.3109/0142159X.2011.614293
Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., and Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace: incidence and impact. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 6, 64–80. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.6.1.64
Di Fabio, A. (2015). Beyond fluid intelligence and personality traits in social support: the role of ability based emotional intelligence. Front. Psychol. 6:395. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01367
Di Fabio, A. (2016). Positive relational management for healthy organizations: psychometric properties of a new scale for prevention for workers. Front. Psychol. 7:1523. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01523
Di Fabio, A. (2017a). Positive healthy organizations: promoting well-being, meaningfulness, and sustainability in organizations. Front. Psychol. 8:1938. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01938
Di Fabio, A. (2017b). The psychology of sustainability and sustainable development for well-being in organizations. Front. Psychol. 8:1534. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01534
Di Fabio, A., Giannini, M., Loscalzo, Y., Palazzeschi, L., Bucci, O., Guazzini, A., et al. (2016). The challenge of fostering healthy organizations: an empirical study on the role of workplace relational civility in acceptance of change and well-being. Front. Psychol. 7:1748. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01748
Di Fabio, A., and Gori, A. (2016). Assessing workplace relational civility (WRC) with a new multidimensional “mirror” measure. Front. Psychol. 7:890. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00890
Di Fabio, A., and Kenny, M. E. (2016). From decent work to decent lives: positive self and relational management (PS&RM) in the twenty-first century. Front. Psychol. 7:361. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00361
Di Fabio, A., and Kenny, M. (2019). Resources for enhancing employee and organizational well-being beyond personality traits: the promise of emotional intelligence and positive relational management. Personal. Individ. Differ. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2019.02.022
Di Fabio, A., and Rosen, M. A. (2018). Opening the black box of psychological processes in the science of sustainable development: a new frontier. Eur. J. Sustain. Develop. Res. 2:47. doi: 10.20897/ejosdr/3933
Di Fabio, A., and Saklofske, D. H. (2014). Promoting individual resources: the challenge of trait emotional intelligence. Personal. Individ. Differ. 65, 19–23. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.026
Di Fabio, A., and Tsuda, A. (2018). The psychology of harmony and harmonization: advancing the perspectives for the psychology of sustainability and sustainable development. Sustainability 10:4726. doi: 10.3390/su10124726
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., and Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. J. Pers. Assess. 49, 71–75. doi: 10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., et al. (2010). New well-being measures: short scales to assess flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Soc. Indic. Res. 97, 143–156. doi: 10.1007/s11205-009-9493-y
Farkas, S., and Johnson, J. (2002). Aggravating circumstances: A status report on rudeness in America. New York, NY: Public Agenda.
Ferguson, S. J., and Goodwin, A. D. (2010). Optimism and well-being in older adults: the mediating role of social support and perceived control. Int. J. Aging Hum. Dev. 71, 43–68. doi: 10.2190/AG.71.1.c
Frone, M. R. (2000). Interpersonal conflict at work and psychological outcomes: testing a model among young workers. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 5, 246–255. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.246
Gallagher, E. N., and Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2008). Social support and emotional intelligence as predictors of subjective well-being. Personal. Individ. Differ. 44, 1551–1561. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.011
González-Morales, M. G., Peiró, J. M., Rodríguez, I., and Greenglass, E. R. (2006). Coping and distress in organizations: the role of gender in work stress. Int. J. Stress. Manag. 13, 228–248. doi: 10.1037/1072-5245.13.2.228
Griffin, R. W., and O’Leary-Kelly, A. (2004). The dark side of organizational behavior : John Wiley & Sons.
H. Y. Grossman and N. L. Chester (eds.) (1989). The experience and meaning of work in women’s lives. 1st Edn. (Hillsdale, NJ: Psychology Press).
Hage, S. M., Romano, J. L., Conyne, R. K., Kenny, M., Matthews, C., Schwartz, J. P., et al. (2007). Best practice guidelines on prevention practice, research, training, and social advocacy for psychologists. Couns. Psychol. 35, 493–566. doi: 10.1177/0011000006291411
Hopkins, M. M., and Bilimoria, D. (2008). Social and emotional competencies predicting success for male and female executives. J. Manag. Dev. 27, 13–35. doi: 10.1108/02621710810840749
Hopkins, M. M., and Yonker, R. D. (2015). Managing conflict with emotional intelligence: abilities that make a difference. J. Manag. Dev. 34, 226–244. doi: 10.1108/JMD-04-2013-0051
Huppert, F. A., and So, T. T. C. (2013). Flourishing across Europe: application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Soc. Indic. Res. 110, 837–861. doi: 10.1007/s11205-011-9966-7
Jex, S. M., Beehr, T. A., and Roberts, C. K. (1992). The meaning of occupational stress items to survey respondents. J. Appl. Psychol. 77, 623–628. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.77.5.623
Kalev, A., and Deutsch, G. (2018). “Gender inequality and workplace organizations: understanding reproduction and change” in Handbook of the sociology of gender. eds. B. J. Risman, C. M. Froyum and W. J. Scarborough (New York, NY, US: Springer International Publishing), 257–269.
Kenny, M. E., and Hage, S. M. (2009). The next frontier: prevention as an instrument of social justice. J. Prim. Prev. 30, 1–10. doi: 10.1007/s10935-008-0163-7
Lapierre, L. M., Spector, P. E., and Leck, J. D. (2005). Sexual versus nonsexual workplace aggression and victims’ overall job satisfaction: a meta-analysis. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 10, 155–169. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.10.2.155
Leiter, M. P., Laschinger, H. K. S., Day, A., and Oore, D. G. (2011). The impact of civility interventions on employee social behavior, distress, and attitudes. J. Appl. Psychol. 96, 1258–1274. doi: 10.1037/a0024442
Lidwall, U., and Marklund, S. (2006). What is healthy work for women and men? – a case-control study of gender- and sector-specific effects of psycho-social working conditions on long-term sickness absence. Work 27, 153–163.
Lim, S., and Cortina, L. M. (2005). Interpersonal mistreatment in the workplace: the interface and impact of general incivility and sexual harassment. J. Appl. Psychol. 90, 483–496. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.90.3.483
Maree, J. G. (2012). Editorial: promoting children’s rights: rekindling respectivity. S. Afr. J. Psychol. 42, 295–300. doi: 10.1177/008124631204200301
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., and Salovey, P. (2000a). “Selecting a measure of emotional intelligence: the case for ability scales” in The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace. eds. R. Bar-On and J. D. A. Parker (San Francisco, CA, US: Jossey-Bass), 320–342.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., and Caruso, D. (2000b). “Models of emotional intelligence” in Handbook of intelligence. ed. R. J. Sternberg (New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press), 396–420.
Mayer, J., Salovey, P., and Caruso, D. (2002). “Mayer-Salovey-Caruso emotional intelligence test (MSCEIT) users manual” in UNH personality lab. (Toronto, Ontario, Canada: MHS Assessments), Available from: https://scholars.unh.edu/personality_lab/27 (Accessed January 21, 2019).
Mikkelsen, E. G., and Einarsen, S. (2002). Relationships between exposure to bullying at work and psychological and psychosomatic health complaints: the role of state negative affectivity and generalized self-efficacy. Scand. J. Psychol. 43, 397–405. doi: 10.1111/1467-9450.00307
Nielsen, K., Nielsen, M. B., Ogbonnaya, C., Känsälä, M., Saari, E., and Isaksson, K. (2017). Workplace resources to improve both employee well-being and performance: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Work Stress 31, 101–120. doi: 10.1080/02678373.2017.1304463
O’Neil, D. A., Hopkins, M. M., and Bilimoria, D. (2008). Women’s careers at the start of the 21st century: patterns and paradoxes. J. Bus. Ethics 80, 727–743. doi: 10.1007/s10551-007-9465-6
Pearson, C. M., Andersson, L. M., and Porath, C. L. (2000). Assessing and attacking workplace incivility. Organ. Dyn. 29, 123–137. doi: 10.1016/S0090-2616(00)00019-X
Pearson, C. M., Andersson, L. M., and Wegner, J. W. (2001). When workers flout convention: a study of workplace incivility. Hum. Relat. 54, 1387–1419. doi: 10.1177/00187267015411001
Pearson, C. M., and Porath, C. L. (2005). On the nature, consequences and remedies of workplace incivility: no time for “nice”? Think again. Acad. Manag. Perspect. 19, 7–18. doi: 10.5465/ame.2005.15841946
Peiró, J. M. (2008). “Stress and coping at work: new research trends and their implications for practice” in The individual in the changing working life. eds. K. Näswall, J. Hellgren and M. Sverke (New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press), 284–310. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511490064.014
Petrides, K. V., and Furnham, A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence. Personal. Individ. Differ. 29, 313–320. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00195-6
Petrides, K. V., and Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. Eur. J. Personal. 15, 425–448. doi: 10.1002/per.416
Petrides, K. V., and Furnham, A. (2003). Trait emotional intelligence: behavioural validation in two studies of emotion recognition and reactivity to mood induction. Eur. J. Personal. 17, 39–57. doi: 10.1002/per.466
Rigby, K. (2000). Effects of peer victimization in schools and perceived social support on adolescent well-being. J. Adolesc. 23, 57–68. doi: 10.1006/jado.1999.0289
Ryff, C. D., and Singer, B. H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: a eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. J. Happiness Stud. 9, 13–39. doi: 10.1007/s10902-006-9019-0
Saklofske, D. H., Austin, E. J., and Minski, P. S. (2003). Factor structure and validity of a trait emotional intelligence measure. Personal. Individ. Differ. 34, 707–721. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00056-9
Salovey, P., and Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagin. Cogn. Pers. 9, 185–211. doi: 10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG
Saxena, M., Geiselman, T. A., and Zhang, S. (2019). Workplace incivility against women in STEM: insights and best practices. Bus. Horiz. doi: 10.1016/j.bushor.2019.05.005
Schilpzand, P., Pater, I. E. D., and Erez, A. (2016). Workplace incivility: a review of the literature and agenda for future research. J. Organ. Behav. 37, S57–S88. doi: 10.1002/job.1976
Seligman, M. E. P. (2012). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. Reprint edition. New York, NY: Atria Books.
Sharma, R. (2012). Measuring social and emotional intelligence competencies in the Indian context. Cross Cult. Manag. 19, 30–47. doi: 10.1108/13527601211195619
Slaski, M., and Cartwright, S. (2003). Emotional intelligence training and its implications for stress, health and performance. Stress. Health 19, 233–239. doi: 10.1002/smi.979
Spector, P. E., and Jex, S. M. (1998). Development of four self-report measures of job stressors and strain: interpersonal conflict at work scale, organizational constraints scale, quantitative workload inventory, and physical symptoms inventory. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 3, 356–367. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.3.4.356
Stough, C., Saklofske, D. H., and Parker, J. D. A. (2009). “A brief analysis of 20 years of emotional intelligence: an introduction to assessing emotional intelligence: theory, research, and applications” in Assessing emotional intelligence: theory, research, and applications. eds. J. D. A. Parker, D. H. Saklofske and C. Stough (Boston, MA, US: Springer US), 3–8.
Suldo, S. M., Friedrich, A. A., White, T., Farmer, J., Minch, D., and Michalowski, J. (2009). Teacher support and adolescents’ subjective well-being: a mixed-methods investigation. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 38, 67–85. ISSN: 0279-6015.
Tetrick, L. E., and Peiró, J. M. (2012). Occupational safety and health. Oxf. Handb. Org. Psychol. 2. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199928286.013.0036
Thory, K. (2016). Developing meaningfulness at work through emotional intelligence training. Int. J. Tran. Dev. 20, 58–77. doi: 10.1111/ijtd.12069
United Nations (2018). About the sustainable development goals. Available from: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ (Accessed November 12, 2018).
Väänänen, A., Toppinen-Tanner, S., Kalimo, R., Mutanen, P., Vahtera, J., and Peiró, J. M. (2003). Job characteristics, physical and psychological symptoms, and social support as antecedents of sickness absence among men and women in the private industrial sector. Soc. Sci. Med. 57, 807–824. doi: 10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00450-1
van Emmerik, I. J. H., Euwema, M. C., and Bakker, A. B. (2007). Threats of workplace violence and the buffering effect of social support. Group Org. Manag. 32, 152–175. doi: 10.1177/1059601106286784
Vartia, M. A.-L. (2001). Consequences of workplace bullying with respect to the well-being of its targets and the observers of bullying. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 27, 63–69. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.588
Vázquez, C., Hervás, G., and Ho, S. M. Y. (2006). Intervenciones clínicas basadas en la Psicología Positiva: Fundamentos y aplicaciones. Psicol. Conductual 14, 401–432. https://scholars.cityu.edu.hk/en/publications/publication(da3b5a3e-361d-49a8-908c-a85cdd11b324).html
Wanberg, C. R., and Banas, J. T. (2000). Predictors and outcomes of openness to changes in a reorganizing workplace. J. Appl. Psychol. 85, 132–142.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., and Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 54, 1063–1070. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Keywords: workplace incivility, primary prevention, workplace relational civility, positive relational management, emotional intelligence, well-being
Citation: Di Fabio A and Duradoni M (2019) Fighting Incivility in the Workplace for Women and for All Workers: The Challenge of Primary Prevention. Front. Psychol. 10:1805. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01805
Edited by:
Margaret M. Hopkins, University of Toledo, United StatesReviewed by:
Corrie Voss, Bowling Green State University, United StatesDeborah Anne O’Neil, Bowling Green State University, United States
Copyright © 2019 Di Fabio and Duradoni. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Annamaria Di Fabio, adifabio@psico.unifi.it