Inertia friction welding of large steel piston with 480 mm diameter used in heavy-duty diesel engine components

Introduction: Inertia friction welding (IFW) has emerged as a critical solid-state joining technology for manufacturing high-performance steel pistons in heavy-duty diesel engines, particularly where complex hollow geometries and stringent reliability requirements preclude conventional fusion welding. However, its application to large-scale components—such as pistons exceeding 450 mm in diameter—remains underexplored, especially regarding the interplay among joint geometry, thermal–mechanical history, and resulting microstructure–property relationships.

Methods: This study demonstrates the successful IFW of a Ø480 mm forged 42CrMo steel piston. A systematic investigation was conducted on the microstructural evolution and mechanical integrity of both the inner (thick-walled) and outer (thin-walled) weld zones, leveraging metallographic analysis, hardness testing, and tensile characterization to correlate processing conditions with performance outcomes.

Results: Geometric asymmetry between the thick inner and thin outer walls induced markedly different cooling rates during welding, leading to distinct microstructures and mechanical responses. Both weld zones exhibited excellent tensile ductility; however, their strength–ductility trade-offs were microstructurally governed. The inner weld showed localized embrittlement due to rapid cooling-induced banded phases and grain-boundary carbides, whereas the outer weld benefited from more favorable thermal conditions that promoted dynamic recrystallization and phase stability. Consistent flash formation across both interfaces confirmed robust process control.

Discussion: These findings validate the technical feasibility of scaling IFW to large-diameter steel pistons for next-generation heavy-duty engines. Moreover, they highlight how joint geometry directly influences thermal management during welding, thereby offering a design lever to tailor microstructure and mechanical performance. This work provides fundamental insights to support the broader adoption of solid-state welding in high-value, safety-critical powertrain applications.

1 Introduction

Heavy-duty diesel engines are internal combustion engines engineered specifically for high-load, continuous operation over prolonged periods. They serve as the power source of choice in a wide range of demanding applications, including heavy-duty trucks, construction and mining equipment, marine propulsion systems, railway locomotives, and stationary power generation units (Pierce et al., 2019). At the heart of these engines, the piston functions as a critical and irreplaceable component—its design and material properties exert a direct influence on key performance metrics such as power output, operational reliability, fuel efficiency, and overall service life (Pierce et al., 2022; Deng et al., 2022).

Historically, pistons for diesel engines have been fabricated from cast aluminum alloys due to their favorable strength-to-weight ratio and thermal conductivity. However, the relentless evolution of engine technology—driven by increasingly stringent emissions regulations, the pursuit of higher specific power outputs, and the resulting rise in in-cylinder temperatures and pressures—has pushed aluminum alloys beyond their practical performance limits. In response, steel pistons have emerged as a compelling alternative, offering markedly superior mechanical strength, enhanced thermal stability, and greater durability under extreme operating conditions. These attributes not only enable next-generation heavy-duty diesel engines to meet contemporary performance and environmental standards but also enhance operational efficiency and longevity in the most demanding applications.

Modern heavy-duty diesel engine pistons commonly incorporate an internal hollow cooling gallery to enhance thermal management under extreme operating conditions. However, the integration of a hollow, double-walled cooling gallery presents significant manufacturing challenges, particularly when applied to steel pistons.

To join the crown and skirt in such complex geometries, the industry has traditionally relied on either fusion welding or inertia friction welding (IFW). Fusion welding often requires modifications to the original piston geometry to ensure adequate access for the welding tool, thereby compromising design integrity or thermal performance. In contrast, inertia friction welding enables the joining of the crown and skirt without altering the intended hollow double-wall structure, allowing the cooling gallery to be formed in a single, integrated step. Nevertheless, this process can leave flash—excess material formed during welding—inside the narrow confines of the oil gallery. Due to limited machining accessibility in this enclosed cavity, complete removal of such flash remains a persistent technical challenge, potentially affecting oil flow dynamics and long-term reliability.

Several researchers have systematically investigated the thermal-hydraulic performance of piston cooling galleries fabricated by friction welding and laser welding under oscillating heat transfer conditions. Their findings reveal that laser-welded galleries—characterized by smooth, geometrically continuous internal surfaces—enable significantly improved oil flow dynamics: the absence of abrupt geometric features enhances oil cavity filling efficiency and increases outlet flow rate, collectively yielding superior heat transfer performance compared to friction-welded counterparts. In contrast, friction welding inevitably leaves internal flash within the narrow cooling gallery, which disrupts coolant flow, introduces localized flow resistance, and impedes effective heat dissipation (Li et al., 2024; Deng et al., 2022).

However, due to the complex double-walled hollow geometry of modern piston designs, conventional fusion welding processes are prone to hot cracking in the weld zone, posing significant challenges to joint integrity and reliability (Zhang et al., 2017a; Zhang et al., 2017b). In light of this limitation—and considering factors such as manufacturability, joint strength, and structural continuity—the industry has largely adopted inertia friction welding as the preferred method for joining the piston crown and skirt in such double-walled configurations.

Inertia friction welding is a solid-state welding technique distinct from friction stir welding, which is particularly well-suited for joining sheet materials or for additive manufacturing applications (Meng et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2024; Dong et al., 2025; Sun et al., 2025; Meng et al., 2026). This process offers not only advantages such as precise control of heat input, high-quality joints, minimal distortion, and no need for filler materials, but also demonstrates exceptional capability in joining multi-wall components where conventional fusion welding methods face accessibility limitations. Currently, IFW has been successfully applied in the manufacturing of critical components of aero-engines, and is gradually being adopted in fields such as construction machinery, energy equipment, and rail transit. The primary materials welded by IFW include nickel-based superalloys (Zhou et al., 2025; Huang et al., 2025; Taysom, 2025), titanium alloys (Liu et al., 2024), and alloy steels (Qin et al., 2023; Firmanto et al., 2022). It is particularly suitable for high-end manufacturing scenarios where the welded joints are required to exhibit excellent mechanical properties, microstructural uniformity, and reliability.

At present, Inertia Friction Welding (IFW) has been widely applied in the manufacturing of steel pistons as an established process (Żurawski, 2022), with certain studies extending to the welding of dissimilar steel pistons (Pierce et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2025). However, existing research and industrial applications primarily focus on medium and small-sized components, leaving a gap in the development of IFW technology for large-sized steel pistons. To address this challenge, this study successfully achieved the welding of steel pistons with a diameter of Ø 480 mm using a heavy-duty horizontal inertia friction welding machine, thereby validating the feasibility of this process in the manufacturing of large-diameter pistons. The research aims to systematically investigate the microstructural characteristics and mechanical integrity of large-scale IFW joints, providing key technical support for the development of high-performance heavy-duty diesel engines. Additionally, this work lays a foundation for the engineering application and promotion of IFW in large-sized steel pistons and critical components of high-end power systems.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Materials and welding procedure

In this study, quenched-and-tempered 42CrMo forged steel was employed for both the piston crown and skirt. This material exhibits excellent comprehensive mechanical properties and good weldability. As illustrated in Figure 1, the piston assembly features a hollow internal structure, resulting in a double-wall configuration. The outer weld thickness is 13.7 mm, while the inner weld thickness is 36 mm, yielding a total weld area of approximately 49,500 mm². During assembly, the piston crown and skirt are tightly butted together, ensuring no gaps exist in either the inner or outer weld joints. This intimate contact enables both weld zones to undergo a uniform thermal cycle during welding, which is beneficial for controlling the magnitude and distribution of welding residual stresses.

Figure 1

Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of Piston Dimensions Before Welding (units: mm).

The experiments were conducted using HWI-IFW-600 inertia friction welding machine, which has a maximum welding force of 6,000 kN, a maximum spindle speed of 650 rpm, and a maximum rotational inertia of 8,000 kg·m². The welding parameters were selected based on prior large-scale welding experiments and are as follows: rotational inertia of 5,500 kg·m², spindle speed of 520 rpm, upset pressure of 140 MPa, and upset time of 30 s. The general appearance of the piston assembly following welding operation is illustrated in Figure 2. The inertia friction welding process is carried out in accordance with GB/T 37777.

Figure 2

Figure 2. Piston assembly after IFW process.

The entire assembly was then subjected to a stress-relief heat treatment at 450 °C for 2 h, followed by furnace cooling to room temperature. Specimens were subsequently extracted from the assembly for further testing.

2.2 Microstructure characterization and mechanical properties test

Mechanical testing specimens and samples for macroscopic and microscopic metallographic examination, were extracted from the piston assembly using a band saw and wire electrical discharge machining. The number and technical specifications of the mechanical specimens are summarized in Table 1. The sampling location for mechanical property specimens is specifically at the welding joint, as shown in Figure 3.

Table 1

Table 1. Test conditions of mechanical properties.

Figure 3

Figure 3. Sampling position for mechanical property specimens.

The macroscopic metallographic specimen was prepared to fully preserve the morphologies of both the outer-wall and inner-wall weld joints. For microscopic examination, separate samples from the external and internal weld seams were polished progressively using metallographic abrasive papers up to 2000 grit, etched with the same 5% nital solution, and then examined under an optical microscope to reveal their microstructural features.

In this study, the microstructure at the interface was examined using optical microscopy (OM) with a VHX7000 extended depth-of-field microscope. Microhardness measurements were also performed across the faying interface, applying a load of 9.807 N held for 30 s.

3 Results

3.1 Macrostructure and microhardness

Figure 4 presents the overall morphology of the piston weld specimen. As demonstrated in the figure, the upper section corresponds to the piston crown side, while the lower section corresponds to the piston skirt side. Notwithstanding the considerable thickness discrepancy between the inner and outer wall, uniform flash curling was observed at both weld interfaces, with no discernible macroscopic cracks or instability deformation. This finding suggests that the welding heat input and upset pressure were effectively regulated within an ideal process window.

Figure 4

Figure 4. Overall morphology of the piston welding joint.

As previously discussed, due to accessibility limitations of machining processes, it is only possible to remove the outermost flash at the external weld seam through mechanical machining. The weld seams within the lubrication chamber are securely retained within the chamber structure, rendering them inaccessible for subsequent machining operations.

In Figure 5a, The inner-wall welding joint exhibits four distinct zones in its macrostructure: the base metal (BM), heat-affected zone (HAZ), thermos-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ), and weld zone (WZ). The TMAZ is characterized by the synergistic effects of frictional heat and upset pressure, resulting in distinct plastic flow lines and the formation of flash due to the applied pressure. This zone has a width of approximately 3.8 mm. Adjacent to the TMAZ, the HAZ displays a semi-arc-shaped distribution caused by the differential stress states between the outer flash region and the central axis. Its width measures approximately 3 mm. The weld zone, located at the interface of the two joined components, experiences the most intense thermomechanical coupling. This leads to highly dynamic recrystallized microstructures and results in the narrowest zone, with a width of approximately 1.1 mm.

Figure 5

Figure 5. Macroscopic Metallography of Inner and Outer Wall Welding joints; (a) Inner wall joint; (b) Outer wall joint.

Compared to the inner wall joint, the outer wall joint exhibits distinct macrostructural characteristics due to its thinner thickness, as shown in Figure 5b. First, the dimensional distribution of microstructural zones differs significantly. The outer wall weld experiences a higher linear velocity during friction heating, resulting in greater thermal energy input. Upon reaching the austenitizing temperature, the TMAZ undergoes slower cooling rates, leading to a narrower TMAZ width (∼1.2 mm) compared to the inner wall. Conversely, the HAZ widens to approximately 2.4 mm due to prolonged thermal exposure.

Notably, the flash region of the outer wall weld lacks visible flow lines, a phenomenon attributed to accelerated cooling rates that suppress plastic deformation. This contrasts with the inner-wall joint, where pronounced flow lines persist. The WZ itself narrows to ∼0.8 mm, reflecting intensified thermomechanical coupling and dynamic recrystallization at the interface.

3.2 Microstructural analysis

Figure 6 presents the microstructural morphology of the base material extracted from the piston skirt of 42CrMo steel, characterized by a typical tempered sorbitic microstructure. This structure consists of uniformly distributed, fine globular carbide particles embedded within a ferrite matrix, which significantly enhances the material’s comprehensive mechanical properties. Notably, it exhibits superior resistance to fatigue and wear, making it highly suitable for high-stress engineering applications.

Figure 6

Figure 6. Microstructural morphology of the base metal on the piston skirt side.

Figure 7 presents the microstructural morphological characteristics of the inner-wall welding joint under different magnifications. The WZ subjected to high-temperature thermomechanical coupling, undergoes austenitization followed by rapid cooling, exhibiting a typical banded microstructural morphology. At lower magnifications, the dark-bright regions display bamboo-leaf-like distributed lower bainite, whose morphology correlates with the carbide precipitation along grain boundaries. The white regions primarily consist of low-carbon martensite and retained austenite, forming a dual-phase microstructure attributed to the non-uniform cooling rates during the welding process. Transitioning to the TMAZ, the microstructure gradually transforms into granular bainite due to cooling rate gradients. This characteristic is identified by carbide particles dispersively distributed on a ferritic matrix, while the banded arrangement remains observable even at lower magnifications. The HAZ retains the original tempered sorbite matrix structure, though the welding thermal cycle significantly alters its mechanical properties compared to the base metal. This evolutionary pattern of microstructural transformation intuitively reflects the gradient influence of welding heat input on materialbling a favorable balance between strength and du microstructures.

Figure 7

Figure 7. Microstructural Morphologies of the Inner-wall welding joint in Different Regions; (a) WZ at 100×; (b) TMAZ at 100×; (c) HAZ at 100×; (d) WS at 500×; (e) TMAZ at 500×; (f) HAZ at 500×.

Figure 8 presents the microstructural morphological characteristics of the outer weld joint at different magnifications. Due to the higher welding line speed, smaller wall thickness, and lower thermal conductivity of the base metal forging compared to the inner weld, the cooling rate of the outer weld is significantly slower. Consequently, the microstructural features in each region exhibit distinct differences from those of the inner weld. In the weld zone (WZ), the slower cooling rate causes the disappearance of the banded microstructure typically observed at low magnification. Under high magnification, a low-carbon martensite morphology becomes evident. The thermomechanically affected zone (TMAZ) and heat-affected zone (HAZ) remain predominantly composed of granular bainite and tempered sorbite.

Figure 8

Figure 8. Microstructural Morphologies of the Outer-wall welding joint in Different Regions; (a) WZ at 100×; (b) TMAZ at 100×; (c) HAZ at 100×; (d) WS at 500×; (e) TMAZ at 500×; (f) HAZ at 500×.

3.3 Mechanical properties

Figure 9 presents the microhardness testing results of the inner and outer weld joint regions. The results indicate that both the inner and outer welds exhibit maximum hardness peaks at the weld interface, followed by a significant drop in hardness when transitioning into the base metal zone. This trend aligns closely with the microstructural characteristics of martensite and lower bainite. Furthermore, the plastic deformation and dynamic recrystallization induced during welding lead to the accumulation of substructures such as dislocations within the weld joint, contributing to the elevated microhardness. Notably, the width of the high-hardness peak region in the inner weld is broader than that of the outer weld, which can be attributed to differences in heat dissipation conditions during the welding process.

Figure 9

Figure 9. Microhardness results of the inner and outer welding joints.

In terms of impact toughness, the three internal weld joints exhibited impact energies of 104.2 J, 104.8 J, and 76.4 J, respectively, yielding an average impact energy of 95.1 J—slightly exceeding the base metal’s impact energy of 90 J. This demonstrates excellent joint toughness and indicates that the welding process does not induce significant microstructural embrittlement in the heat-affected or fusion zones.

Figure 10 presents the room-temperature tensile properties of the internal and external welds in comparison with the base metal. Both welds exhibit excellent static mechanical performance, albeit with distinct characteristics. The outer-wall joint achieves an ultimate tensile strength of 986 MPa and yield strength of 884 MPa, closely matching the base metal strength and surpassing the inner-wall joint. Notably, the outer-wall even exceeds the base metal in yield strength, suggesting effective strengthening mechanisms—possibly due to refined microstructure or favorable residual stress distribution.

Figure 10

Figure 10. Tensile test results of inner and outer wall welding joint.

Regarding ductility, the outer-wall joint shows an elongation of 13.5% and reduction of area of 62%, which are comparable to the base metal, indicating well-preserved ductility. In contrast, the inner-wall joint exhibits lower ductility, with an elongation of 10.5%.

Fracture location analysis further supports these observations: the internal weld fractures closer to the weld centerline, suggesting a relatively weaker or more constrained region within the weld bead, whereas the external weld fractures farther from the centerline—likely in the heat-affected zone or adjacent base metal—indicating superior integrity of the weld metal itself. Overall, both welds meet or approach the base metal’s mechanical benchmarks, with the external weld demonstrating superior strength and more balanced strength–ductility synergy.

4 Discussion

This study systematically investigates the microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of inner and outer friction-welded joints in 42CrMo forged steel pistons. The results show that, although both types of joints exhibit excellent static mechanical performance—with elongation exceeding 60%—significant differences are observed in terms of strength and ductility. Specifically, the outer weld demonstrates higher ultimate tensile strength and yield strength compared to the inner weld, whereas the inner weld exhibits a lower reduction in area and fractures closer to the weld centerline.

These differences in mechanical behavior are primarily attributed to distinct microstructural evolutions induced during the friction welding process. Due to its greater thickness, the inner weld experiences a faster cooling rate, leading to the formation of a banded microstructure characterized by bamboo-leaf-like lower bainite intermixed with a dual-phase structure of low-carbon martensite and retained austenite. This microstructure results in a broader hardness peak in the weld center region, which may promote stress concentration, thereby reducing the reduction in area and causing fracture to occur near the centerline. In contrast, the thinner outer weld undergoes a slower cooling process, facilitating finer and more homogeneous grain structures and enabling more complete dynamic recrystallization. Consequently, the outer weld achieves enhanced strength while maintaining superior ductility.

Further microstructural analysis reveals that carbide particles precipitated along grain boundaries in the inner weld may act as preferential sites for crack initiation and propagation, contributing to its reduced ductility. Additionally, the pronounced bamboo-leaf morphology of lower bainite in the weld zone (WZ) of the inner weld reflects the influence of rapid cooling, which intensifies banded structures and restricts dislocation motion, thereby limiting plastic deformation capacity. By comparison, the WZ of the outer weld exhibits a significantly refined and uniform grain structure—likely due to the slower cooling rate—which not only promotes extensive dynamic recrystallization but also stabilizes retained austenite, thus enabling a favorable balance between strength and ductility.

Notably, the consistent morphology of flash curling at both inner and outer joint interfaces indicates that heat input and upset pressure were effectively maintained within an optimal processing window, ensuring macroscopic integrity and process stability of the welded joints.

5 Conclusion

1. The inner weld zone, owing to its greater thickness and rapid cooling rate, developed a banded dual-phase microstructure predominantly composed of acicular lower bainite and low-carbon martensite/retained austenite. This microstructure resulted in a broadened hardness peak in the weld center, inducing significant stress concentration, which drastically reduced the reduction of area to only 10.5% and shifted the fracture location toward the weld center.

2. The degraded ductility of the inner weld is primarily attributed to the synergistic effect of carbides precipitated along grain boundaries and the banded microstructure: the former act as preferential sites for crack initiation, while the latter impedes dislocation motion, collectively impairing plasticity. In contrast, the outer weld experienced a slower cooling rate, enabling sufficient dynamic recrystallization, yielding fine and homogeneous grains, and allowing retained austenite to remain stable—thereby achieving an excellent balance between high strength and high elongation (>60%).

3. Precise control of processing parameters ensured both macroscopic integrity and microstructural optimization. The high morphological consistency of flash curling at the interface between the inner and outer weld zones indicates that heat input and upset pressure were accurately maintained within an optimal processing window, laying the foundation for superior overall mechanical performance.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

YW: Investigation, Writing – original draft. FQ: Writing – review and editing. CZ: Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing. ZW: Data curation, Writing – review and editing. RL: Methodology, Writing – original draft. HY: Writing – review and editing, Supervision. DW: Writing – original draft, Validation. YT: Writing – review and editing, Investigation, Visualization. JZ: Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft, Resources.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was not received for this work and/or its publication.

Conflict of interest

Authors YW, FQ, CZ, ZW, RL, HY, DW, YT, and JZ were employed by Harbin Welding Institute Limited Company.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

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