Calcium fluoride as an efficient mineralizer for low-temperature portland cement clinkering: a mechanistic mini review

Reducing the clinkering temperature of Portland cement is a key strategy for lowering energy consumption and CO₂ emissions. Among various mineralizers, calcium fluoride (CaF₂) has been widely reported as an effective additive for promoting clinker formation at reduced temperatures. This mini review summarizes recent mechanistic insights into the role of CaF₂ in facilitating low temperature alite (C₃S) formation. Available evidence suggests that CaF₂ exerts its mineralizing effect through interconnected mechanisms, including enhanced lattice defect formation, accelerated ionic diffusion, and early liquid-phase development. Fluoride ions (F⁻) are proposed to substitute for oxygen sites in the C₃S structure, generating calcium vacancies that facilitate the C₂S-to-C₃S transformation at lower temperatures. At the melt scale, CaF₂ reduces melting temperature and viscosity, thereby improving ionic transport and phase combination. CaF₂ addition is also frequently associated with the preferential formation of high symmetry alite polymorphs under reduced thermal conditions. When combined with metal oxides such as TiO₂, CuO, and ZnO, CaF₂ often exhibits synergistic effects that further enhance clinker formation efficiency. In addition, waste-derived CaF₂ has been shown to retain mineralizing activity comparable to natural fluorite, supporting resource efficiency and circular-economy approaches. Overall, CaF₂ is a promising mineralizer for low-temperature, energy-efficient, and low-carbon cement manufacturing, while its effectiveness remains system-dependent.

1 Introduction

Portland cement production is among the most energy-intensive industrial processes worldwide and is responsible for approximately 7%–8% of global anthropogenic CO₂ emissions (Zhang et al., 2021; Khalil and AbouZeid, 2025; Zong et al., 2025). This substantial environmental burden is primarily associated with the high temperatures required for clinker formation (Abdul et al., 2025), typically in the range of 1450 °C–1500 °C, to ensure sufficient development of tricalcium silicate (C₃S, alite) (Ouzia and Scrivener, 2019), the principal phase governing early-age strength of cement (Martin et al., 2024). In response to increasing regulatory pressure and global decarbonization targets, reducing the clinkering temperature has emerged as a key strategy for lowering thermal energy demand, fuel consumption, and process-related CO₂ emissions in the cement industry (Han et al., 2026; Zapata and Bosch, 2009; Hafiz et al., 2020; Qian et al., 2016; Li et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2024; Igami et al., 2025). Within this framework, the use of mineralizers has attracted significant attention as an effective and industrially feasible approach to enhance clinker burnability (Song et al., 2026). Mineralizers facilitate clinker formation by increasing raw-meal reactivity, promoting early liquid-phase formation, and accelerating phase transformations under reduced thermal input (Lin et al., 2025; Amare et al., 2025). Among the various mineralizing agents investigated, calcium fluoride (CaF₂) has been widely reported as an effective mineralizer for lowering clinkering temperature while maintaining or improving clinker quality (Dahhou et al., 2021) It should be noted that reported reductions in clinkering temperature are highly system-dependent and vary with raw-meal composition, co-dopants, and the criteria used to define clinker formation. In this context, previous studies have shown that CaF₂-containing systems can exhibit apparent temperature reductions on the order of ∼100 °C in ordinary Portland cement and up to ∼100 °C–300 °C in belite-rich compositions, reflecting combined compositional and process-related effects rather than the isolated action of CaF₂ alone.

The pronounced mineralizing effect of CaF₂ arises from several interconnected mechanisms operating at both lattice and melt scales. At the lattice level, fluoride ions (F⁻) substitute for non-bridging oxygen sites within the C₃S crystal structure, leading to the formation of calcium vacancies and an increased concentration of lattice defects (Da et al., 2022a). These defects enhance ionic mobility and lower the activation energy for cation diffusion, thereby facilitating the solid-state transformation of dicalcium silicate (C₂S) into C₃S at reduced temperatures (Guan et al., 2025; Yang et al., 2024; Li et al., 2024). At the melt level, CaF₂ lowers the liquidus temperature and reduces melt viscosity, enabling earlier formation of a fluid phase that enhances mass transport and accelerates the incorporation of CaO into silicate phases (Tao et al., 2025; Hu et al., 2025; Guo et al., 2025). In addition, CaF₂ promotes the formation and stabilization of high-symmetry alite polymorphs, such as monoclinic and rhombohedral C₃S, which preferentially crystallize under lower thermal conditions and exhibit superior burnability compared to low-symmetry counterparts.

In recent years, the relevance of CaF₂ mineralization has been further strengthened by advances in waste valorization. Industrial sludges generated from semiconductor processing, photovoltaic manufacturing, and metal pickling frequently contain high proportions of CaF₂, typically ranging from 40 to 60 wt% (Banshchikov et al., 2023; Wu et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2025; Thakur et al., 2026; Shtan’ko et al., 2020). Experimental and industrial studies have demonstrated that waste-derived CaF₂ retains mineralizing performance comparable to that of natural fluorite, while simultaneously enabling the immobilization of fluorine and heavy metals within clinker mineral phases.

This dual functionality supports circular-economy strategies by reducing reliance on virgin raw materials and providing a safe pathway for the co-processing of fluoride-bearing industrial wastes. Despite these advantages, the application of CaF₂ requires careful optimization. Excessive fluorine content may result in the formation of insoluble CaF₂-rich surface layers on clinker minerals, potentially inhibiting early hydration. Most studies report an optimal CaF₂ dosage in the range of 1–3 wt%, depending on raw-meal composition and coexisting oxides (Wang et al., 2021; Kulikov et al., 2024). Moreover, the presence of metal oxides such as TiO₂, ZnO, and CuO can either enhance or suppress the mineralizing effect of CaF₂ through synergistic or competitive interactions, underscoring the need for a mechanistic understanding of multi-component systems.

Accordingly, this mini review critically synthesizes recent advances in understanding the role of CaF₂ in reducing the clinkering temperature of Portland cement. Special attention is given to distinguishing between kinetic accessibility and thermodynamic considerations in reported CaF₂-assisted mineralization mechanisms. Emphasis is placed on lattice-level defect chemistry, melt-phase behavior, alite polymorph stabilization, and synergistic effects arising from co-doping with metal oxides and waste-derived additives. The objective is to provide both a mechanistic framework and practical insights to support the industrial implementation of CaF₂-based mineralization strategies for low-temperature, energy-efficient, and low-carbon cement production.

2 Mechanism of CaF₂ mineralization

2.1 Lattice-level effects

Fluoride ion substitution within the crystal structure of tricalcium silicate (C₃S) has been widely proposed as an important lattice-level contribution to CaF₂-assisted mineralization. Boughanmi et al. (2018) reported that fluoride ions (F⁻) can preferentially replace non-bridging oxygen sites in the C₃S lattice, leading to the formation of charge-compensating calcium vacancies and an increase in lattice disorder. Such defect formation is commonly inferred from indirect experimental observations, including X-ray diffraction peak shifts and Fourier-transform infrared band broadening in CaF₂-containing systems.

The resulting increase in defect concentration is generally interpreted as facilitating ionic mobility within the silicate framework, thereby lowering the kinetic barriers associated with cation diffusion and solid-state phase transformation. In this context, Da et al. (2021a) showed that CaF₂-doped systems exhibit accelerated conversion of dicalcium silicate (C₂S) to C₃S at temperatures approximately 50 °C–100 °C lower than those required under conventional clinkering conditions. While the available evidence does not establish a single dominant mechanism, these observations are consistent with the view that fluoride-induced lattice defects contribute to enhanced alite nucleation and growth, particularly when coupled with concurrent melt-phase effects.

2.2 Melt-phase behavior

Modification of melt-phase characteristics is widely regarded as an important contribution to the mineralizing effect of CaF₂ in Portland cement systems. Previous studies have reported that the addition of CaF₂ can lower the liquidus temperature and reduce melt viscosity, thereby promoting earlier formation of a fluid phase during clinkering (Guo et al., 2025; Banshchikov et al., 2023). Under such conditions, mass transport is facilitated through viscous flow within the melt rather than being limited by solid-state diffusion, which can accelerate clinker phase formation at reduced temperatures.

Experimental observations by Da et al. (2021b) indicated that CaF₂-containing raw meals exhibit earlier liquid-phase formation compared with CaF₂-free systems, which is consistent with enhanced ionic transport and more efficient incorporation of CaO into silicate phases. In addition, reduced melt viscosity has been associated with improved solid–liquid interfacial contact, facilitating dissolution–precipitation processes and contributing to lower free-lime contents (Laonamsai et al., 2025).

This melt-assisted behavior appears to be particularly relevant in belite-rich and low-basicity systems. For example, Dahhou et al. (2021) reported substantial reductions in optimal firing temperature in belite-rich clinkers containing CaF₂, which they attributed to early melt formation and enhanced phase combination kinetics. Similarly, recent studies on waste-derived CaF₂ sources suggest that melt-modifying effects comparable to those of natural fluorite can be achieved despite compositional complexity (Mend et al., 2025).

Overall, available evidence suggests that melt-phase modification by CaF₂ contributes to improved diffusion kinetics and phase development under reduced thermal input, while its effectiveness remains strongly dependent on system composition, coexisting oxides, and processing conditions.

2.3 Polymorph stabilization

The formation of high-symmetry alite polymorphs in CaF₂-containing systems has been widely reported in the literature and is commonly associated with improved clinker burnability under reduced thermal conditions. In conventional CaF₂-free systems, alite typically crystallizes as low-symmetry triclinic polymorphs at lower temperatures, whereas monoclinic and rhombohedral forms are more frequently observed only at elevated firing temperatures. Da et al. (2021a) systematically demonstrated that the addition of CaF₂ promotes the formation of monoclinic and rhombohedral C₃S at comparatively lower clinkering temperatures. Importantly, this preferential appearance of high symmetry alite polymorphs is generally interpreted as arising from reduced kinetic barriers rather than from a fundamental shift in thermodynamic stability. Da et al. attributed this behavior to fluoride-induced lattice defects, enhanced ionic mobility, and early liquid-phase formation, which collectively facilitate atomic rearrangement during sintering and increase the kinetic accessibility of high-symmetry alite structures.

Earlier investigations into fluorine-bearing additives, including those by Boughanmi et al. (2018), provided foundational evidence that fluorine incorporation can induce lattice distortion and promote structural rearrangement in silicate phases, thereby influencing polymorphic development during clinkering. These early findings offer important historical context for later mechanistic interpretations based on CaF₂-assisted mineralization.

Representative examples of reported polymorph evolution and associated reductions in clinkering temperature for CaF₂-containing and co-doped systems are summarized in Table 1. These data highlight that both the extent of polymorph transformation and the magnitude of apparent temperature reduction are strongly system-dependent and influenced by raw-meal composition, co-dopants, and evaluation criteria (Laonamsai et al., 2025; Da et al., 2025).

Table 1

Table 1. Reported effects of CaF₂ and co-doped systems on clinkering temperature reduction.

Co-doping strategies further reinforce this kinetically driven interpretation. For example, ZnO–CaF₂ and CuO–CaF₂ systems have been shown to exhibit enhanced formation of high-symmetry alite polymorphs at reduced firing temperatures [36,39]. Such effects are commonly attributed to coupled anion–cation substitutions and melt-assisted diffusion processes that further lower kinetic constraints on polymorphic transformation. Collectively, available evidence suggests that polymorph evolution in CaF₂-containing systems is governed primarily by kinetic accessibility under defect- and melt-rich conditions, while thermodynamic factors appear to play a secondary role.

3 Co-doping synergies

Beyond its individual mineralizing effect, CaF₂ exhibits pronounced synergistic behavior when combined with selected metal oxides, resulting in further reductions in clinkering temperature and enhanced clinker reactivity. These co-doping systems operate through complementary mechanisms, in which CaF₂ primarily modifies lattice defect chemistry and melt-phase properties, while metal oxides influence cation mobility, intermediate phase formation, and polymorph stability. The synergistic effect of CaF₂ and TiO₂ has been widely reported in both laboratory and industrial clinker systems. Da et al. (2021a) demonstrated that TiO₂ promotes early formation of reactive aluminate and silicate intermediates and accelerates CaCO₃ decomposition, thereby lowering the overall sintering temperature. When combined with CaF₂, these effects are significantly intensified due to the simultaneous reduction in melt viscosity and enhancement of lattice-level diffusion. The dual action of TiO₂-induced lattice distortion and CaF₂-driven melt formation widens the effective formation window of alite, enabling clinker formation at temperatures below 1300 °C.

Copper oxide also exhibits strong synergy with CaF₂. Laonamsai et al. (2025) reported that CuO enhances CaO mobility and promotes the early formation of intermediate phases, while CaF₂ facilitates melt formation and stabilizes alite at reduced temperatures. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis revealed that fluorine predominantly substitutes for oxygen in silicate lattices, whereas Cu²⁺ preferentially substitutes for Fe³⁺ in ferrite phases. This coupled anion cation substitution induces simultaneous lattice distortion in both silicate and interstitial phases, markedly accelerating alite nucleation. As a result, substantial C₃S formation was achieved at temperatures as low as 1250 °C, which are insufficient for meaningful alite development in conventional systems.

Zinc oxide represents another effective co-dopant in CaF₂-based mineralization strategies. Da et al. (2025) demonstrated that ZnO and CaF₂ co-doping generates dual lattice defects through the concurrent substitution of Zn²⁺ into silicate phases and F⁻ into oxygen sites. This defect coupling significantly enhances phase transformation kinetics and promotes stabilization of the rhombohedral C₃S polymorph, as confirmed by characteristic X-ray diffraction peak shifts. In addition to improved burnability, ZnO–CaF₂ systems exhibit exceptionally low free-lime contents and efficient incorporation of zinc into clinker minerals, offering advantages for both clinker quality and heavy-metal immobilization.

Synergistic mineralization effects are particularly prominent in waste-derived CaF₂ systems, which inherently contain multiple co-dopants. Xu et al. (2025) reported that fluorite tailings containing CaF₂, iron oxides, and clay minerals produced strong multi-component mineralization effects, resulting in enhanced early- and long-term strength development despite compositional variability. Similarly, Da et al. (2022b) observed that fluorine-containing industrial sludges rich in CaF₂, MgF₂, and metal oxides generated cooperative lattice melt effects. Microstructural analysis revealed preferential fluorine enrichment at silicate grain boundaries, while Zn, Cu, and Ni were distributed across both silicate and interstitial phases, supporting a multi-scale synergy mechanism.

Collectively, these findings demonstrate that CaF₂-based co-doping systems operate through coordinated lattice-level, melt-phase, and polymorph-stabilization mechanisms. The presence of complementary metal oxides amplifies the mineralizing efficiency of CaF₂, enabling reliable low-temperature clinker formation across a wide range of raw-meal compositions. Such synergistic behavior is particularly advantageous for industrial applications involving waste-derived mineralizers, where compositional variability necessitates robust and adaptable mineralization strategies.

4 Industrial and environmental significance

The practical significance of CaF₂-based mineralization extends well beyond laboratory-scale studies and demonstrates strong potential for industrial implementation. Reducing the clinkering temperature through CaF₂ addition offers multiple operational advantages for cement manufacturing. Holban et al. (2015) reported that a reduction of 100 °C in kiln temperature can decrease thermal energy consumption by approximately 7%–12%, resulting in lower fuel costs and extended service life of refractory linings. Owing to its ability to promote early liquid-phase formation, CaF₂ also enables a reduction in residence time within the sintering zone without compromising clinker phase development, as demonstrated by Da et al. (2021b). This characteristic makes CaF₂-compatible mineralization strategies suitable for both wet and dry kiln technologies currently employed in commercial cement plants. Waste-derived mineralizers are of particular interest from a circular-economy perspective. Mend et al. (2025) demonstrated that fluorine-containing industrial sludge rich in CaF₂ and MgF₂ retains mineralizing performance comparable to that of natural fluorite and can partially replace virgin mineral resources. Similarly, Zhao et al. (2025) reported that low-temperature calcination of fluorine-rich sludge produces reactive fluoride phases that improve melt fluidity and facilitate the immobilization of hazardous elements during clinker formation. The ability of CaF₂ to incorporate heavy metals into silicate and aluminate clinker phases provides a significant environmental advantage, particularly for the co-processing of wastes containing fluorine, zinc, and copper.

Xu et al. (2025) showed that fluorite tailings containing CaF₂, iron oxides, and clay minerals, when used as co-dopants in high-silica clinker systems, enhance mechanical strength while ensuring stable incorporation of fluorine into clinker phases. These findings suggest that industrial by-products containing CaF₂, ZnO, Fe oxides, or Cu-bearing compounds should be regarded not as contaminants but as synergistic mineralizers. Da et al. (2022a) further emphasized that fluorine-containing sludge exhibits multi-component fluxing effects, enabling reliable reductions in clinkering temperature even under variable raw-meal compositions a critical requirement for industrial-scale applications. When applied at optimized dosages of 1–3 wt%, CaF₂-based mineralization consistently improves clinker burnability, reduces free-lime content, lowers CO₂ emissions, and enhances the immobilization of trace metals within clinker minerals. Consequently, CaF₂-based mineralization represents a practical, resource-efficient, and environmentally beneficial strategy for achieving low-temperature, energy-efficient, and low-carbon cement production.

5 Knowledge gaps and future directions

Despite growing evidence supporting CaF₂-based mineralization, several unresolved issues remain that limit predictive control and large-scale industrial implementation. The key knowledge gaps and corresponding research priorities are summarized in Table 2. A major limitation lies in the lack of quantitative separation between lattice-level defect formation and melt-phase enhancement under realistic clinkering conditions. Addressing this issue will require in-situ high-temperature techniques, such as synchrotron X-ray diffraction and real-time phase tracking, to directly observe defect evolution and phase transformations. Additional challenges arise in multi-component systems derived from industrial wastes, where interactions among CaF₂, metal oxides, and melt structure remain insufficiently understood.

Table 2

Table 2. Key knowledge gaps and research priorities for CaF₂-based mineralization.

Predictive thermodynamic frameworks combining CALPHAD-based modeling with molecular dynamics simulations are needed to reliably describe eutectic behavior, phase equilibria, and fluxing efficiency in such complex systems. Hydration performance represents another critical uncertainty. Excessive fluorine may lead to the formation of CaF₂-rich surface layers that delay early hydration, yet composition-specific threshold levels remain poorly defined. Long-term hydration studies incorporating pore-solution chemistry and surface-spectroscopic analysis are therefore required to establish safe operational windows. Finally, environmental and process-control considerations including fluorine volatility, long-term leaching stability of immobilized metals, and variability in waste-derived feedstocks require systematic investigation. Comprehensive emission monitoring accelerated leaching tests, and adaptive process-control strategies will be essential to ensure environmentally compliant and robust low-temperature clinker production.

6 Conclusion

Calcium fluoride (CaF₂) is one of the most effective mineralizers for reducing the clinkering temperature of Portland cement and represents a practical pathway toward low-carbon cement production. This mini review highlights that the mineralizing action of CaF₂ arises from the combined effects of fluoride-induced lattice defect formation, melt-phase modification, and stabilization of high-symmetry alite polymorphs. Fluoride substitution in the C₃S lattice generates calcium vacancies that enhance ionic mobility and lower the activation energy for the C₂S-to-C₃S transformation, while simultaneous reductions in liquidus temperature and melt viscosity promote early liquid-phase formation and accelerated clinker reactions. Together, these mechanisms enable efficient clinker formation at temperatures 50 °C–300 °C below conventional conditions.

The mineralizing efficiency of CaF₂ is further amplified through synergistic interactions with metal oxides such as TiO₂, CuO, and ZnO, which enhance lattice distortion, melt fluidity, and polymorph stability. Importantly, CaF₂ derived from industrial waste streams exhibits mineralizing performance comparable to that of natural fluorite, while facilitating the immobilization of fluorine and heavy metals within clinker phases. When applied at optimized dosages of 1–3 wt%, CaF₂-based mineralization consistently reduces energy consumption and CO₂ emissions while improving clinker burnability and process robustness. Overall, CaF₂-based mineralization offers a viable, resource-efficient, and environmentally beneficial strategy for low-temperature clinker production. Continued advances in mechanistic understanding, thermodynamic modeling, and process control will further support its industrial implementation in next-generation sustainable cement manufacturing.

Author contributions

BM: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing. YL: Formal Analysis, Writing – review and editing. D-YK: Methodology, Writing – review and editing. J-HK: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review and editing. Y-SC: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This work was supported by the Technology Innovation Program (RS-2024-00438915, The development of technology for continuous process of low-temperature sintering clinkers and high efficiency of preheating and cooling precesses) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Resources (MOTIR, Korea).

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

References

Abdul, W., Rößler, C., Kletti, H., Mawalala, C., Pisch, A., Bannerman, M. N., et al. (2025). On the variability of industrial Portland cement clinker: microstructural characterisation and the fate of chemical elements. Cem. Concr. Res. 189, 107773. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2024.107773

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Amare, H. B., Shen, W., Zhao, D., Gebreyohannes, M. A., Yixin, S., Wang, G., et al. (2025). Investigation on calcium sulfoaluminate clinker prepared from raw granular steel slag and phosphogypsum: composition, thermal behaviour, and hydration kinetics. Constr. Build. Mater 503, 144517. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.144517

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Banshchikov, A. G., Dvortsova, P. A., Illarionov, Y. Y., Ivanov, I. A., Sokolov, N. S., Suturin, S. M., et al. (2023). Effect of fluoride layer thickness on the leakage current in Au/CaF2/Si(111) heterostructures. Thin Solid Films 783, 140058. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2023.140058

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Boughanmi, S., Labidi, I., Megriche, A., El Maaoui, M., and Nonat, A. (2018). Natural fluorapatite as a raw material for Portland clinker. Cem. Concr. Res. 105, 72–80. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.01.006

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Da, Y., He, T., Shi, C., Wang, M., and Feng, Y. (2021a). Studies on the formation and hydration of tricalcium silicate doped with CaF2 and TiO2. Constr. Build. Mater, 266. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121128

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Da, Y., He, T., Shi, C., Wang, M., and Feng, Y. (2021b). Potential of preparing cement clinker by adding the fluorine-containing sludge into raw meal. J. Hazard Mater, 403. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123692

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Da, Y., He, T., and Shi, C. (2022a). Unveiling the cooperation effects of fluorine and copper on tricalcium silicate (C3S) during cement kiln co-processing hazardous wastes containing Cu. Constr. Build. Mater 337, 127612. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127612

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Da, Y., He, T., Shi, C., Lin, Y., and Feng, Y. (2022b). Revealing the co-doping effects of fluorine and copper on the formation and hydration of cement clinker. Constr. Build. Mater 335, 127516. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127516

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Da, Y., He, T., Ma, X., Yang, R., Lin, Y., Yang, Q., et al. (2025). Probing into the triggering effects of zinc presence on the mineral formation, hydration evolution, and mechanical properties of fluorine-bearing clinker. Langmuir 41 (18), 11417–11427. doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.5c00302

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Dahhou, M., El Hamidi, A., El Moussaouiti, M., and Arshad, M. A. (2021). Synthesis and characterization of belite clinker by sustainable utilization of alumina sludge and natural fluorite (CaF2). Mater. (Oxf). 20, 101204. doi:10.1016/j.mtla.2021.101204

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Guan, Q., Jin, M., Ma, Y., Liu, Z., Zeng, H., Zhao, H., et al. (2025). Early carbonation behavior of belite-rich cement: material foundation and kinetic processes. Constr. Build. Mater 482 141689. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.141689

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Guo, W., Lan, X., Jin, Y., Ding, Z., Gao, J., Guo, Z., et al. (2025). Effect of shear rate on the rheological and crystallization behaviors of CaO-SiO2-CaF2-Ce2O3 slag melt at high temperature. Ceram. Int. 51 (23), 39953–39961. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2025.06.228

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Hafiz, M. A., Skibsted, J., and Denarié, E. (2020). Influence of low curing temperatures on the tensile response of low clinker strain hardening UHPFRC under full restraint. Cem. Concr. Res. 128, 105940. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105940

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Han, Q., Zhou, J., Zheng, Q., Lu, B., and Hou, G. (2026). Design of γ-C2S-dominated low-carbon clinkers via C3S2 stoichiometry: toward enhanced carbonation and strength. Mater Lett. 403, 139527. doi:10.1016/j.matlet.2025.139527

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Holban, E., Deák, G. Y., Daescu, V., Diacu, E., Daescu, A. I., Tanase, G. S., et al. (2015). Ways to reduce co 2 emissions and energetic consumption at clinker producing under Romanian specific conditions. J. Environ. Prot. Ecol. 16.

Google Scholar

Hu, K., Li, G., Xu, R., Zhu, L., Yan, W., and Liu, Y. (2025). Dissolution behavior of MgO in CaF2-CaO-Al2O3-La2O3 slag. Ceram. Int. 51 (28), 59291–59296. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2025.10.146

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Igami, R., Igarashi, G., Aili, A., Minato, D., Kurihara, R., and Maruyama, I. (2025). Clinker mineral formation and thermal decomposition of calcium carbonates in carbonated tobermorites: mechanism of CO2 release in low-temperature ranges. Cem. Concr. Res. 197, 107969. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2025.107969

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Khalil, E., and AbouZeid, M. (2025). A global assessment tool for cement plants improvement measures for the reduction of CO2 emissions. Results Eng. 26, 104767. doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104767

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Kulikov, B. P., Vasyunina, N. V., Dubova, I. V., Samoilo, A. S., and Merdak, N. V. (2024). Obtaining and using synthetic fluorite for Portland cement clinker production. Mag. Civ. Eng. 17 (3). doi:10.34910/MCE.127.3

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Laonamsai, J., Tasi, P., Wiwatrojanagul, P., Sriondee, M., Suriwong, T., and Julphunthong, P. (2025). Synergistic effects of CuO and CaF2 additives in facilitating low-temperature tricalcium silicate formation and stabilization. Results Eng., 26. doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104620

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, Z., Guo, W., Hu, Y., Wang, X., Qian, B., and Jiang, C. (2022). Preparation and performance of Ternesite-Ye’Elimite clinker produced from steel slag at lower temperature. J. Renew. Mater 10 (11), 2921–2935. doi:10.32604/jrm.2022.019258

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Li, Y., Ma, Y., Shen, X., Meng, Q., and Li, Y. (2024). Clinkering and hydration of alite-belite-ye’elimite cement with increasing ye’elimite percentage. Constr. Build. Mater 426, 136224. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136224

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Lin, H., Yao, X., Wang, X., Zhang, X., Mao, H., Zhang, J., et al. (2025). Green ammonia co-firing in cement rotary kiln: numerical investigation on clinker quality and NOx emission by gas–solid interaction. Appl. Therm. Eng. 277, 127116. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2025.127116

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Martin, P., Gaitero, J. J., Aretxabaleta, X. M., Qomi, M. J. A., and Manzano, H. (2024). A kinetic monte carlo study of the C3S dissolution mechanism. Cem. Concr. Res. 180, 107502. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2024.107502

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Mend, B., Lee, Y., Kim, J. H. J., and Chu, Y. S. (2025). Reducing cement clinker sintering temperature using fluorine-containing semiconductor waste. Materials 18 (17), 4202. doi:10.3390/ma18174202

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Ouzia, A., and Scrivener, K. (2019). The needle model: a new model for the main hydration peak of alite. Cem. Concr. Res. 115, 339–360. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.08.005

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Qian, B., Li, X., and Shen, X. (2016). Preparation and accelerated carbonation of low temperature sintered clinker with low Ca/Si ratio. J. Clean. Prod. 120, 249–259. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.01.024

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Shtan’ko, V., Chinkov, E., Shrayber, A., and Stepanov, S. (2020). Intrinsic luminescence of CaF2 crystals under simultaneous excitation of pulsed accelerated electrons and stimulated emission of semiconductor CdSSe. Radiat. Phys. Chem. 168, 108619. doi:10.1016/j.radphyschem.2019.108619

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Song, P., Wang, X., Zhou, J., Tian, Y., Wang, N., Liu, R., et al. (2026). Performance optimization and low-carbon effects of replacing cement clinker with mineral micro-powders in cold, high-altitude regions. Sustain Chem. Pharm. 49, 102289. doi:10.1016/j.scp.2025.102289

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Tao, S., Lin, H., Sun, G., Chen, L., and Xia, Y. (2025). Effects of different CaO to CaF2 ratios on the wear resistance of fe-cr-based ceramic composites. Ceram. Int. 51 (22), 35253–35260. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2025.05.244

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Thakur, A. S., Dubey, S., Kumar, S., and Vaish, R. (2026). Sonocatalytic dye degradation using CaF2 nanoparticles produced from eggshells. Mater. Sci. Eng. B 323, 118751. doi:10.1016/j.mseb.2025.118751

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, K., Dong, J., Zhang, T., Deng, X., and Ren, L. (2021). Adding effects of CaF2 and TiO2 as mineralizers on the sintering temperature and hardening properties of calcium sulfoaluminate cement. J. Adv. Concr. Technol. 19 (12), 1309–1317. doi:10.3151/jact.19.1309

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wang, S., Gao, F., Li, B., Liu, Y., Deng, T., Zhang, Y., et al. (2024). Clinkerization of carbonatable belite–melilite clinker using solid waste at low temperature. Constr. Build. Mater 418, 135357. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135357

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Wu, X., Tang, M., Yuan, L., Li, J., Qi, L., Weng, X., et al. (2024). Solvethermal synthesis and thermochromic properties of CaF2@VO2-based core-shell structure composites. Ceram. Int. 50 (20), 37676–37683. doi:10.1016/j.ceramint.2024.07.126

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Xu, M., Hu, L., Zhao, Q., Dong, Z., and Mo, L. (2025). Effects of fluorite tailings content on formation, properties and fluorine doping preferences of high-silica clinker: experimental study and industrial verification. J. Build. Eng. 15, 106. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112612

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Yang, W., Rao, M., Deng, Q., Wang, F., and Yang, L. (2024). Effects of CuO doping on the calcination and hydration performance of alite-belite-ferrite-ye’elimite cement. Dev. Built Environ. 18, 100375. doi:10.1016/j.dibe.2024.100375

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zapata, A., and Bosch, P. (2009). Low temperature preparation of belitic cement clinker. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 29 (10), 1879–1885. doi:10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2008.11.004

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, R., Arrigoni, A., and Panesar, D. K. (2021). Could reactive MgO cement be a green solution? The effect of CO2 mineralization and manufacturing route on the potential global warming impact. Cem. Concr. Compos 124, 104263. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104263

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhang, Z., Tan, L., Zhou, Y., Wang, Y., Li, D., Zhu, L. M., et al. (2025). Anisotropic plasticity and fracture mechanisms of single-crystal CaF2 under indentation: insights from crystal plasticity simulation and experiment. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 39, 6435–6447. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2025.11.003

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Zhao, H., Zhang, X., Yang, F., Mu, P., Yan, H., and Pan, D. (2025). Efficient conversion mechanism of calcium fluoride in fluoride-containing sludge by low-temperature calcination.

Google Scholar

Zong, Z., Daoud, O., Hankins, N. P., She, Q., and Peters, C. D. (2025). Valorising desalination brine for green cement production: toward mitigating global CO2 emissions. Water Res. 284, 123930. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2025.123930

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar