Perceived Barriers and Learning Anxiety in Online Education Among Domestic and International Students

Yu Chen^*

• Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China

Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, university students in China experienced a rapid shift to online education beginning in late 2019. However, online learning experiences differed substantially between domestic students, who underwent hybrid instruction with repeated transitions between online and in-person classes, and international students, many of whom experienced fully online instruction for more than two years. Grounded in Learning Anxiety Theory and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, this study developed an Online Learning Anxiety State Scale (Cronbach's a=0.780) and an Online Education Obstacle scale (Cronbach's a=0.779), which demonstrated acceptable overall reliability and validity. Using these instruments, the study examined perceived barriers to online learning-particularly online teaching skills and technological factors-and their relationships with online learning anxiety among domestic (N=133) and international (N=86) undergraduate students enrolled in Chinese universities. Results identified three primary dimensions-teachers' teaching skills, internet/equipment conditions, and environmental factors-as significant contributors to heightened online learning anxiety. These factors were significantly associated with students' anxiety levels in online learning contexts. Furthermore, notable group differences emerged: compared with domestic students, international students perceived environmental factors as more salient sources of anxiety than internet or equipment-related barriers. This study fills a key gap by examining how multiple online learning obstacles relate to anxiety, comparing domestic and international students. Integrating Equity Theory and Expectancy-Value Theory, it reconceptualizes online learning anxiety as a multifaceted psychological response shaped by fairness perceptions and unmet expectations. Findings advance theory, guide post-pandemic higher education toward modality equity, and inform equitable, psychologically sustainable distance and blended learning design.