ORIGINAL RESEARCH article
Front. Sports Act. Living
Sec. Sport Psychology
Volume 7 - 2025 | doi: 10.3389/fspor.2025.1683432
This article is part of the Research TopicExploring Motor Imagery Across the Lifespan – Gaps Between Practical Applications and Theoretical Frameworks - Volume IIView all articles
Understanding the prevalence of mental imagery, music, and their combined use among athletes and coaches
Provisionally accepted- 1The University of Sydney Sydney Conservatorium of Music, Sydney, Australia
- 2The MARCS Institute for Brain Behaviour and Development, Penrith, Australia
- 3Brain Stimulation and Rehabilitation lab, School of Health Sciences, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia, Sydney, Australia
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Abstract Introduction: Both mental imagery and music have significant impacts on motor skill acquisition and improvement, as well as on the regulation of psychological factors crucial for athletic success (Simonsmeier et al., 2021, Terry et al., 2020). However, research on the prevalence of these mental practice strategies across sporting domains, as well as their combined application (hereafter reported as MIMUS), is limited. It therefore remains unclear which strategies athletes and coaches adopt in an athlete's mental preparation routine. Accordingly, the present study investigated the prevalence of music, mental imagery, and their combined use among coaches and athletes across different performance levels and sports settings. The content and motivations underlying the use of these strategies were also explored. Design and Methods: One hundred and thirty-six individuals (89 men, 42 women, 5 non-binary, Mage = 35.22, SDage = 15.82, Range = 18 to 83 years) completed a 23-item online questionnaire regarding athletes' mental preparation regimes in sports. After providing demographic information, participants responded to closed-ended and multiple-choice questions concerning their use of mental imagery, music, and MIMUS, as well as the reasons, contexts, and circumstances (why, how, where, when) in which these strategies were employed. Results: Bayesian Mixed Effects models showed that mental imagery (MI, 62%), music (MUS, 66%), and their combination (MIMUS, 27%) were all commonly used by the respondents, though athletes and coaches employed them with distinct motivations. While athletes favoured the use of music, coaches more commonly recommended the use of mental imagery to their athletes. At the international level, the use of all strategies increases, especially MIMUS. Conclusions: The findings highlight that music and mental imagery form a core part of the mental training routine in athletes, and that their use is more prevalent at the top end of the expertise spectrum.
Keywords: Mental Imagery, Music interventions, Combined strategies, Mental skills training, Cognitive strategies in sport
Received: 11 Aug 2025; Accepted: 22 Sep 2025.
Copyright: © 2025 Castellar, Cavaleri and Herff. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
* Correspondence: Fernando Castellar, fernando.castellar@sydney.edu.au
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