Innovations in Natural Dye Production: Bridging Tradition and Modern Technology

Shailendra Yadav^1*Harish Chandra Prajapti¹Sankatha P Sonkar²Rama Shankar Nigam¹Rishikesh Chandravanshi¹Chitrasen Gupta³

• ¹AKS University, Satna, India
• ²Government P.G. College, Chunar, Mirzapur, U.P., India, Mirzapur, India
• ³Kutir Post Graduate College, Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

cultural heritage and sustainable practices. For centuries, people in different communities around the world used natural resources to make dyes. They used plants, minerals, and other organic materials to create bright and long-lasting colors for textiles, artwork, and cosmetics. Synthetic dyes were introduced in the 19th century, which reduced the use of natural dyes. This happened because natural dyes were harder to produce on a large scale, more expensive, and less consistent in color.. Natural colorants are obtained from natural sources through various extraction methods following the drying and grinding of plant materials. The selection of an appropriate solvent is based on the specific dye of interest, and extraction is performed using both conventional and advanced techniques [1,2,3]. The desired compounds, utilized for dyeing applications, are isolated using chromatographic or alternative separation methods. These isolated compounds are subsequently characterized through spectral analysis techniques [4] recently, the heightened focus on sustainability, environmental responsibility, and ethical production has revitalized interest in natural dyes. Newer technologies are now enabling the evolution of this traditional practice into a progressive and sustainable industry [5]. Present paper suggests a new advanced method grinding assisted microwave extraction of natural dye from biological materials.The shift from traditional to modern methods of natural dye production addresses several key limitations of traditional techniques, such as inconsistent color fastness, limited scalability, and environmental concerns. Traditional methods often rely on lengthy extraction processes, large amounts of water, and toxic mordants. Modern advancements, such as enzymatic extraction, microbial fermentation, and nanotechnology, enhance dye yield, improve color stability, and reduce environmental impact. For example, enzymatic extraction allows for more efficient pigment retrieval without hazardous chemicals, while microbial fermentation enables the sustainable production of bio-based dyes. Additionally, nano-enhanced dyeing techniques improve adherence to fabrics, reducing water and energy consumption. These innovations not only preserve the cultural heritage of natural dyeing but also make the process more viable for large-scale, eco-friendly textile production [4,5,6].Natural dyes are used in textiles, cosmetics, food, and sustainable packaging. Ethical fashion brands and the beauty industry increasingly favor plant-based pigments [7].. Scientific breakthroughs, including microbial dye production and AI-assisted dye optimization, enhance the scalability and consistency of natural dyes. One report express that applied machine learning models to optimize parameters such as pH, temperature, and dyeing time, significantly improving color uniformity and reducing water consumption in plant-based textile dyeing [8].Many cultures, including Indian block printers, Japanese indigo dyers, and African resist-dye artisans, have preserved and revived dyeing traditions. Governments and NGOs support artisans through training and global market access. However, challenges such as color inconsistency, limited scalability, and durability concerns remain. These problem can be solved by hybrid dyeing techniques, biodegradable textiles, and regenerative agriculture for dye plant cultivation [9].By blending tradition with innovation, natural dyeing continues to evolve as a viable alternative to synthetic dyes, promoting cultural heritage while advancing sustainability in various industries.Traditional methods of dye extraction, such as boiling or fermenting plant materials, often posed several challenges [10,11]. These included inefficiencies, significant resource consumption, and inconsistent dye quality due to variations in processing conditions [12]. However, recent technologies have addressed many of these limitations, leading to more efficient, sustainable, and reliable processes Fig. 1 [13,14,15,16].Contemporary extraction techniques surpass traditional methods due to their ability to achieve higher yields with reduced costs. Several studies have quantitatively compared modern dye extraction techniques based on yield, efficiency, and product quality. It was reported that microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) of Coleus atropurpureus yielded 42% more pigment compared to traditional boiling, with a reduction in extraction time by 60% [17].Similarly, enzymatic extraction methods using cellulase or pectinase have shown dye yield increases of 20-30% with enhanced color fastness up to 4.5-5 rating on the gray scale, compared to 3.0-3.5 for conventional methods [18]. Grinding-assisted microwave extraction method have demonstrated 10-15% higher extraction efficiency and significantly lower solvent usage than stand alone microwave or mechanical methods in early stage of study. Moreover, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) using CO₂ has been shown to recover 95-98% of target anthocyanins with minimal thermal degradation [19] Key modern extraction methods are summarized below.SPME is a solvent-free extraction technique that integrates sampling, extraction, concentration, and sample introduction into a single step. The method relies on (a) the partitioning of the target analytes between the extraction phase and the sample matrix, and (b) the desorption of the concentrated analytes into the instrument's storage or analytical system. This technique is simple, efficient, and enables the enrichment of analytes while minimizing solvent consumption. However, a limitation of SPME is the limited availability of commercially produced stationary phases [20].This technique leverages the significant solubility of target dyes in supercritical fluids, such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), propane, butane, or ethylene. The dye interacts with the supercritical fluid within an extraction vessel under high pressure. SFE is an advanced separation method that exploits the enhanced solvating capacity of gases in their supercritical state, which occurs above their critical temperature and pressure. Carbon dioxide is the most widely used supercritical fluid due to its low critical temperature, nonflammability, low toxicity, and cost-effective availability in pure form. Typically, CO₂ is employed within a temperature range of 40°C to 80°C and a pressure range of 35-75 MPa. A key advantage of this technique is that small variations in temperature and pressure result in significant changes in the density and solvating power of the supercritical fluid, enabling efficient extraction. However, SFE is not cost-effective in some applications, although the affordability of CO₂ makes it a viable option for many practical uses [21].Pressurized-liquid extraction is a technique in which extraction is carried out under elevated temperatures and moderate to high pressure to enhance the efficiency of dye component recovery. This method is time-efficient and requires minimal solvent usage. The process begins by dispersing the sample with inert materials, such as sand, and placing the extraction material into a specialized vessel.An appropriate solvent is introduced during the static phase, which typically lasts between 0.5 and 21 minutes, while the system is heated to the desired temperature. Following this, the dynamic extraction phase begins, during which the solvent flows continuously through the material. The efficiency of this method depends on several factors, including the choice of solvent, temperature, pressure, and the nature of the adsorbents used. Key advantages of PLE include rapid extraction and reduced solvent consumption. However, the primary drawback of this technique is the need for expensive equipment and additional cleanup requirements [22] Microwave-assisted extraction is a technique that employs microwave radiation at varying power levels (e.g., 264 W, 400 W, and 600 W) in the presence of solvents to extract dye compounds from plant materials. In this process, microwave radiation generates heat within the extraction material and solvent, facilitating the transfer of target compounds into the solvent. This method is rapid and suitable for thermally unstable compounds. The efficiency of MAE depends on several factors, including the choice of solvent, extraction material, target compound properties, extraction time, temperature, and microwave power. MAE is employed in two configurations: closed-vessel and open-vessel systems.The closed-vessel system offers advantages such as reduced solvent requirements and minimal loss of volatile compounds. However, it is limited in processing sample quantities. In contrast, the open-vessel system operates safely at atmospheric pressure, allowing reagents to be added during extraction. While the open system is limited to processing fewer samples simultaneously, the closed system is capable of handling multiple samples in parallel [22,23] Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) is a sustainable method for obtaining natural dyes using high-frequency sound waves. It breaks plant cell walls, enhancing pigment release. This technique requires less time, energy, and chemicals while improving yield and preserving heat-sensitive compounds. UAE is widely used in textiles, food, and cosmetics, making natural dye production more efficient and eco-friendly [24].Solid-phase extraction is a technique that utilizes a solid adsorbent selected based on the properties of the target dye compounds. SPE is conceptually similar to liquid-liquid extraction, as both techniques involve the distribution of specific compounds between two phases. In SPE, various adsorbents, including silica-based, carbonbased, and clay-based resins, are commonly employed. The solid adsorbent in SPE enhances the concentration and purification of the target constituents. Compared to liquid-liquid extraction, SPE offers several advantages, including higher recovery rates, reduced formation of emulsions, and simpler operational procedures [25].It involve the extraction and concentration of hydrophobic components from aqueous solutions using nonionic surfactants. In this process, the target constituents are transferred from the aqueous phase into the surfactant-rich phase. These techniques are increasingly being combined with ultrasound or microwave irradiation to enhance efficiency. The primary advantage of surfactant-mediated extraction is its effectiveness in extracting constituents that exhibit strong interactions with the surfactant medium, thereby improving the overall extraction performance [26,27] Several industries have successfully integrated advanced natural dye extraction techniques. Stony Creek Colors (USA) produces plant-based indigo dye using microbial fermentation for denim. Colorifix (UK) uses engineered microorganisms for textile dyes. Givaudan (Switzerland) applies ultrasound extraction for cosmetic pigments, while Oterra (Denmark) produces food colorants through fermentation. These examples demonstrate how innovative methods are transforming natural dye production in textiles, cosmetics, and food industriesInnovations in extraction technologies have improved yield and consistency. For instance, enzymatic extraction and grinding assisted microwave methods ensure a higher concentration of dye compounds while reducing resource consumption. Some innovative extraction method such as electrochemical extraction is also being examined for natural dye extraction. These techniques also make it easier to extract colors from previously underutilized sources, such as agricultural waste and invasive plants [28]While these advanced methods vary in equipment cost and scalability, they consistently outperform traditional techniques in terms of yield and environmental sustainability. Several companies have successfully implemented advanced biotechnological approaches for large-scale natural dye production.Stony Creek Colors (USA) utilizes fermentation-based extraction and purification of indigo dye from Indigofera species. Their patented technique [29] focuses on stabilization of bioindigo pigment through filtration and enzymatic treatment, allowing compatibility with industrial denim dyeing systems. The company supplies major denim brands like Levi Strauss & Co., demonstrating both scalability and market acceptance. Their vertically integrated modelfrom regenerative farming to dye extraction-highlights commercial viability while maintaining a sustainable supply chain. Colorifix (UK) employs a fully biological dyeing process, where microorganisms are genetically engineered to produce specific pigments. The workflow includes (i) DNA sequence identification for color genes from natural organisms, (ii) insertion of these genes into microbial hosts such as E. coli, and (iii) fermentation-based dye production. The dyeing process involves printing the microbes directly onto fabric where they fix the color, eliminating the need for hazardous mordants or salts. Colorifix's process is protected under patents [30]and emphasizes water and chemical savings of up to 90%.Enzymatic extraction is a green technique that uses specific enzymes to degrade plant cell walls and release dye compounds more effectively. Commonly employed enzymes include cellulases, pectinases, and laccases. Cellulase and pectinase treatments have been reported to improve anthocyanin and flavonoid extraction yields by 20-30%, especially from berries, onion skins, and flower petals. These enzymes not only improve pigment release but also enhance color stability and reduce processing time. Such enzymeassisted processes offer advantages over solvent extraction by being non-toxic, energy-efficient, and biodegradable, making them ideal for eco-friendly dye production [31] Grinding-assisted microwave extraction is an advanced and innovative technique originally developed for the synthesis of organic and inorganic compounds [32]. Its adaptation for natural dye extraction is a recent advancement and has shown promising results in early-stage experimental studies. This method combines mechanical grinding with simultaneous microwave irradiation to enhance the extraction process. In this technique, the plant material, either with or without a solvent, is ground in a tubular glass mortar and pestle setup, which is integrated into a microwave oven equipped with a condenser. The mechanical grinding facilitates the breakdown of plant cell structures, while microwave irradiation promotes rapid heating and efficient transfer of the dye components into the solvent or extraction medium. Some experimental studies [33] demonstrate that GAME able to improve extraction efficiency by 10-15%, reduces solvent use, and maintains better pigment integrity compared to conventional MAE. These findings support its superiority as a green and costeffective alternative for plant-based dye extraction. Additionally, it offers a cost-effective solution while maintaining environmental sustainability.Although as given in table 1 modern method are efficient but high cost of advanced natural dye extraction methods poses challenges for smallscale producers due to expensive equipment and limited resources. However, technological advancements, government support, and shared facilities can reduce costs. Growing consumer demand for eco-friendly products also creates opportunities.As research improves efficiency, the cost of ultrasound and microbial is expected to drop, making sustainable dye production more accessible for artisans and small businesses. Scaling up natural dye production faces challenges like regulatory hurdles, environmental concerns, and economic barriers. Strict safety standards and certification costs limit small producers. Largescale extraction may require high water and energy use, while waste management remains an issue. High investment costs and inconsistent dye yields also pose difficulties, requiring further research, policy support, and sustainable innovations. However, it was reported that Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas putida have been genetically modified to produce indigo from tryptophan via the expression of tryptophanase enzyme. Similarly, Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been engineered to biosynthesize anthocyanin [34,35]. These microbial systems allow pilot-scale fermentation of dyes, reducing dependency on agricultural land and ensuring batch-to-batch pigment consistency [36]. Several lifecycle assessments (LCAs) and techno-economic analyses have been conducted to evaluate the environmental and operational trade-offs between modern and traditional natural dye extraction methods. It was reported that that Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) and Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE) reduced overall energy consumption by up to 60% and solvent usage by 40-70% compared to traditional boiling, while maintaining superior dye quality and extraction efficiency. However, these methods require specialized equipment, which can increase initial capital costs by 3-5 times, depending on the scale of operation [37].In terms of environmental impact, Supercritical Fluid Extraction while highly efficient demands significant energy to maintain high pressures (often above 35 MPa), although the use of recyclable CO₂ as a solvent reduces chemical waste generation. Conversely, traditional boiling consumes large volumes of water (10-15 L per kg of plant material), generates considerable wastewater with plant residues, and offers limited dye recovery (~30-40%). Moreover, comparative LCA have shown that SFE systems produce 80% less solid waste and require 50% less post-extraction treatment than conventional methods [38]. These assessments highlight that although modern methods may involve higher upfront costs and technical complexity, they offer long-term benefits in terms of sustainability, process efficiency, and waste reduction. As such, their adoption in commercial dye production is increasingly supported by regulatory incentives and green certification frameworks [34]. Genetically modified bacteria like as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas putida, which have been engineered to synthesize indigo more efficiently. Researchers have modified these bacteria to express the tryptophanase enzyme, which converts tryptophan into indole, a precursor for indigo production. [34]. Another promising innovation is engineered yeast strains like Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which are modified to produce flavonoid-based dyes such as anthocyanins. These dyes, commonly found in berries and flowers, can now be produced through fermentation, reducing agricultural land use and water consumption [35] 4.2 Improved Dye Quality and Color Vibrancy: These methods provide better control over extraction conditions, leading to consistent dye quality and enhanced color vibrancy, making the dyes suitable for a wide range of applications.Advanced techniques often require lower energy input, minimal solvent usage, and generate less waste, thereby reducing the overall environmental footprint compared to conventional methods. Many researchers and industries are now exploring sustainable dye extraction from agricultural waste, food by-products, and invasive plant species. Theses researches reduce environmental impact and enhance resource efficiency. The use of food waste, such as onion peels, pomegranate rinds, avocado seeds, and black carrot residues, for dye production is now being practiced [42]. These contain rich natural pigments like flavonoids, tannins, and anthocyanins, which can be effectively used in textile dyeing. These sources help reduce food waste while providing cost-effective and eco-friendly dye alternative 4.4. Sustainability and Diversification of Sources: By enabling the use of non-traditional and diverse raw materials, these techniques expand the range of natural dye sources, reducing reliance on conventional resources and promoting sustainable practices in dye production.Modern and innovative methods are more superior to traditional natural dye extraction process. Innovative methods are superior because these techniques make feasible to extract dyes from unconventional and previously underutilized sources obtained from agricultural waste such as byproducts from crops, such as fruit peels, seeds, and stems, which were once discarded, are now valuable sources of natural dyes. Species that pose ecological challenges can be repurposed for dye extraction, turning an environmental problem into a resourceful solution. The intersection of tradition and modern technology is driving a renaissance in natural dye production. By leveraging innovative scientific methods, sustainable practices, and digital tools, the industry is overcoming historical limitations and paving the way for a vibrant future. These innovations not only preserve the cultural legacy of natural dyes but also contribute to a more sustainable and ethical global economy Beyond textiles, modern natural dye technologies are influencing other industries such as fashion, eco-tourism, cosmetics, and home décor. Sustainable fashion brands are embracing natural dyeing techniques to reduce environmental impact, while eco-tourism initiatives promote traditional dye-making as a cultural and heritage experience. Additionally, interior design and cosmetic industries are increasingly adopting plant-based colorants for eco-conscious consumers.By integrating modern extraction techniques and circular economy principles, natural dye production is transforming multiple industries, ensuring a more ethical, eco-friendly, and commercially viable future on a global scale.