Proton Motive Force Partitioning Links Energy and Redox Balance to Photoprotection and Carbon Gain

Fardad DidaranSarah MacPhersonAlice CherestesSaman ZohrabiMark Lefsrud^*

• McGill University, Montreal, Canada

Fluctuating irradiance forces leaves to balance energy conversion with protection against reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced when light harvesting exceeds metabolic demand. In chloroplasts, this balance is strongly governed by the thylakoid proton motive force (pmf, ΔμH⁺) and by its partitioning between a pH gradient (ΔpH) and an electric field (Δψ). A proton-circuit framework in which proton deposition by linear and cyclic electron flow builds pmf, chloroplast ATP synthase spends pmf as ATP with an effective proton conductivity g(H⁺), and counter-ion fluxes reshape ΔpH:Δψ on seconds-to-minutes timescales. Δψ-relieving anion pathways (VCCN1, CLCe) promote rapid ΔpH expression during light increases, enabling timely engagement of PsbS-dependent qE and ΔpH-dependent photosynthetic control at cytochrome b₆f, whereas the K⁺/H⁺ antiporter KEA3 accelerates ΔpH relaxation after transitions to lower light to speed recovery. These dynamics link to stromal metabolism by describing how stromal alkalinization and Mg²⁺/thioredoxin regulation activate Calvin–Benson–Bassham enzymes, how CEF pathways (PGR5/PGRL1 and NDH) increase pmf without net NADPH production, and how phosphate recycling and triose-phosphate utilization constrain ATP synthase flux. This review examines how thylakoid architecture could generate spatial heterogeneity in proton dynamics and highlight what remains inferred versus directly measured. Finally, we present an operating-regime map and a minimal diagnostic toolkit—multiwavelength ECS (pmf, ΔpH/Δψ, g(H⁺)) combined with NPQ, P700, and gas exchange—to translate mechanism into testable predictions and improve cross-study comparability. The unifying design principle is timing: rapid ΔpH formation to protect PSI during upshifts, followed by timely relaxation to minimize unnecessary quenching and sustain CO₂ assimilation.